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HBR

G uide to

Better

Business

Writing

Engage readers

Tighten and brighten

Make your case

By Bryan A. Garner

Smarter than the average guide

HBR Guide to

Better Business

Writing

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Harvard Business Review Guides

Arm yourself with the advice you need to succeed on the

job, from the most trusted brand in business. Packed

with how-to essentials from leading experts, the HBR

Guides provide smart answers to your most pressing

work challenges.

The titles include:

HBR Guide to Better Business Writing

HBR Guide to Finance Basics for Managers

HBR Guide to Getting the Mentoring You Need

HBR Guide to Getting the Right Job

HBR Guide to Getting the Right Work Done

HBR Guide to Giving Effective Feedback

HBR Guide to Making Every Meeting Matter

HBR Guide to Managing Stress

HBR Guide to Managing Up and Across

HBR Guide to Persuasive Presentations

HBR Guide to Project Management

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Other Books Written or Edited

by Bryan A. Garner

Garner's Modern American Usage

Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage

Black's Law Dictionary (all editions since 1996)

Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts, with

Justice Antonin Scalia

Making Your Case: The Art of Persuading Judges,

with Justice Antonin Scalia

Garner on Language and Writing

The Redbook: A Manual on Legal Style

The Elements of Legal Style

The Chicago Manual of Style, Ch. 5, "Grammar and

Usage" (15th & 16th eds.)

The Winning Brief

Legal Writing in Plain English

Ethical Communications for Lawyers

Securities Disclosure in Plain English

Guidelines for Drafting and Editing Court Rules

The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style

A Handbook of Basic Legal Terms

A Handbook of Business Law Terms

A Handbook of Criminal Law Terms

A Handbook of Family Law Terms

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HBR Guide to

Better

Business

Writing

Bryan A. Garner

HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW PRESS

Boston, Massachusetts

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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in, or intro-

duced into a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any

means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other-

wise), without the prior permission of the publisher. Requests for

permission should be directed to permissions@hbsp.harvard.edu or

mailed to Permissions, Harvard Business School Publishing, 60 Har-

vard Way, Boston, Massachusetts 02163.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Garner, Bryan A.

HBR guide to better business writing / Bryan A. Garner.

p. cm. — (Harvard business review guides)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4221-8403-5 (alk. paper)

1. Commercial correspondence. 2. Business writing. I. Harvard

business review. II. Title. III. Title: Guide to better business

writing.

HF5718.3.G37 2013

808.06′ 665—dc23

2012032809

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Find more digital content or join the discussion on www.hbr.org.

The web addresses referenced and linked in this book were live and

correct at the time of the book's publication but may be subject to change.

To J.P. Allen,

my lifelong friend

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What You'll Learn

Do you freeze up when writing memos to senior execu-

tives? Do your reports meander and raise more questions

than they answer for key stakeholders? Do your e-mails

to colleagues disappear into a void, never to be answered

or acted on? Do your proposals fail to win clients?

You'll lose a lot of time, money, and inﬂ uence if you

struggle with business writing. And it's a common prob-

lem. Many of us fumble for the right words and tone in

our documents, even if we're articulate when we speak.

But it doesn't have to be that way. Writing clearly and

persuasively requires neither magic nor luck. It's a skill—

and this guide will give you the conﬁ dence and the tools

you need to cultivate it.

You'll get better at:

• Pushing past writer's block.

• Motivating readers to act.

• Organizing your ideas.

• Expressing your main points clearly.

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What You'll Learn

• Cutting to the chase.

• Holding readers' attention.

• Writing concise, useful summaries.

• Trimming the fat from your documents.

• Striking the right tone.

• Avoiding grammar gaffes.

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Contents

Introduction: Why you need to write well xv

Section 1: D elivering the Goods

Quickly and Clearly

1. Know why you're writing 3

2. Understand your readers 7

3. Divide the writing process into four

separate tasks 13

4. Before writing in earnest, jot down your

three main points—in complete sentences 19

5. Write in full—rapidly 27

6. Improve what you've written 31

7. Use graphics to illustrate and clarify 37

Section 2: Devel oping Your Skills

8. Be relentlessly clear 43

9. Learn to summarize—accurately 49

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xii

Contents

10. Waste no words 53

11. Be plain-spoken: Avoid bizspeak 57

12. Use chronology when giving a factual

account 67

13. Be a stickler for continuity 71

14. Learn the basics of correct grammar 77

15. Get feedback on your drafts from colleagues 85

Section 3: Av oiding the Quirks That

Turn Readers Oﬀ

16. Don't anesthetize your readers 91

17. Watch your tone 99

Section 4: Common Forms of

Business Writing

18. E-mails 105

19. Business Letters 111

20. Memos and Reports 125

21. Performance Appraisals 133

Appendixes

A. A Checklist for the Four Stages of Writing 139

B. A Dozen Grammatical Rules You Absolutely

Need to Know 143

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xiii

Contents

C. A Dozen Punctuation Rules You Absolutely

Need to Know 153

D. Common Usage Gaﬀ es 163

E. Some Dos and Don'ts of Business-Writing

Etiquette 165

F. A Primer of Good Usage 169

Desk References 199

Index 203

Acknowledgments 209

About the Author 211

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Introduction:

Why you need to

write well

You may think you shouldn't fuss about your writing—

that good enough is good enough. But that mind-set is

costly. Supervisors, colleagues, employees, clients, part-

ners, and anyone else you communicate with will form

an opinion of you from your writing. If it's artless and

sloppy, they may assume your thinking is the same. And

if you fail to convince them that they should care about

your message, they won't care. They may even decide

you're not worth doing business with. The stakes are that

high.

Some people say it's not a big deal. They may feel com-

placent. Or they may think it's ideas that matter—not

writing. But good writing gets ideas noticed. It gets them

realized. So don't be misled: Writing well is a big deal.

Those who write poorly create barriers between them-

selves and their readers; those who write well connect

with readers, open their minds, and achieve goals.

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Introduction

xvi

All it takes is a few words to make a strong impres-

sion, good or bad. Let's look at four brief passages—two

effective and two not. See whether you can tell which

ones are which:

1. In the business climate as it exists at this point

in time, one might be justiﬁ ed in having the

expectation that the recruitment and reten-

tion of new employees would be facilitated by

the economic woes of the current job market.

However, a number of entrepreneurial busi-

ness people have discovered that it is no small

accomplishment to add to their staff people

who will contribute to their bottom line in a

positive, beneﬁ cial way.

2. In this job market, you might think that hiring

productive new employees would be easy. But

many entrepreneurs still struggle to ﬁ nd good

people.

3. The idea of compensating a celebrity who

routinely uses social media to the tune of

thousands of dollars to promote one's com-

pany by tweeting about it may strike one as

unorthodox, to say the least. But the number of

businesses appropriating and expending funds

for such activities year on year as a means of

promotion is very much on the rise.

4. Paying a celebrity thousands of dollars to pro-

mote your company in 140-character tweets

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Introduction

xvii

may seem crazy. But more and more businesses

are doing just that.

Can you tell the difference? Of course you can. The ﬁ rst

and third examples are verbose and redundant. The syn-

tax is convoluted and occasionally derails. The second

and fourth examples are easy to understand, economical,

and straightforward. They don't waste the reader's time.

You already recognize business writing that gets the

job done—and trust me, you can learn to produce it.

Maybe you think writing is a bother. Many people do. But

there are time-tested methods for reducing the worry and

labor. That's what you'll ﬁ nd in this book, along with lots

of "before" and "after" examples that show these meth-

ods in action. (They're adapted from real documents, but

disguised.)

Good writing isn't an inborn gift. It's a skill you cul-

tivate, like so many others. Anyone of normal athletic

ability can learn to shoot a basketball or hit a golf ball

reasonably well. Anyone of normal intelligence and coor-

dination can learn to play a musical instrument compe-

tently. And if you've read this far, you can learn to write

well—probably very well—with the help of a few guiding

principles.

Think of yourself as a professional writer

If you're in business, and you're writing anything to get

results—e-mails, proposals, reports, you name it—then

you're a professional writer. Broadly speaking, you belong

to the same club as journalists, ad agencies, and book

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Introduction

xviii

authors: Your success may well depend on the writing

you produce and its effect on readers. That's why what

you produce should be as polished as you can make it.

Here's an example you may be familiar with. Various

versions of this story exist—it's sometimes placed in dif-

ferent cities and told with different twists:

A blind man sits in a park with a scrawled sign hang-

ing from his neck saying, "I AM BLIND," and a tin cup

in front of him. A passing ad writer pauses, seeing only

three quarters in the cup. He asks, "Sir, may I change

your sign?" "But this is my sign. My sister wrote it

just as I said." "I understand. But I think I can help.

Let me write on the back, and you can try it out." The

blind man hesitantly agrees. Within two hours the cup

is full of coins and bills. As another passerby donates,

the blind man says: "Stop for a moment, please. What

does my sign say?" "Just seven words," says the newest

contributor: "It is spring, and I am blind."

It matters how you say something.

Read carefully to pick up good style

To express yourself clearly and persuasively, you'll need

to develop several qualities:

• An intense focus on your reason for writing—and

on your readers' needs.

• A decided preference for the simplest words pos-

sible to express an idea accurately.

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Introduction

xix

• A feel for natural idioms.

• An aversion to jargon and business-speak.

• An appreciation for the right words in the right

places.

• An ear for tone.

How can you acquire these traits? Start by noticing their

presence or absence in everything you read. Slow down

just a little to study the work of pros. This shouldn't be a

chore, and it shouldn't be squeezed in at the end of a long

day. Grab a few spare minutes, over your morning cof-

fee or between tasks, and read closely. Find good mate-

rial that you enjoy. It could be the Economist or the Wall

Street Journal, or even Sports Illustrated, which contains

tremendous writing.

If you can, read at least one piece aloud each day as if

you were a news announcer. (Yes, literally aloud.) Read

with feeling. Heed the punctuation, the phrasing, the

pacing of ideas, and the paragraphing. This habit will

help cultivate an appreciation of the skills you're trying to

acquire. And once you've honed your awareness, all you

need is practice.

Recognize the payoﬀ

An ambiguous letter or e-mail message will require a

"corrective communication" to clear up a misunder-

standing—which saps resources and goodwill. A poorly

phrased and poorly reasoned memo may lead to bad

decision-making. An ill-organized report can obscure

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Introduction

important information and cause readers to overlook vi-

tal facts. A heavy, uninviting proposal will get put aside

and forgotten. A badly drafted pitch to a key client will

only consume the time of higher-ups who must rewrite

it at the eleventh hour to make it passable—lowering its

chances of success because of the hectic circumstances

surrounding its preparation.

That's a lot of wasted time—and a drag on proﬁ ts. But

you can prevent these problems with clear, concise writ-

ing. It's not some mysterious art, secret and remote. It's

an indispensable business tool. Learn how to use it, and

achieve the results you're after.

One prefatory note: Asterisks are used in the text

throughout this book to mark examples of incorrect En-

glish grammar, spelling, or usage.

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Section 1

Delivering the

Goods Quickly

and Clearly

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Chapter 1

Know why

you're writing

Many people begin writing before they know what they're

trying to accomplish. As a result, their readers don't know

where to focus their attention or what they're supposed to

do with the message. So much depends on your purpose

in writing that you must ﬁ x it ﬁ rmly in your mind. What

do you want the outcome to be? Do you want to persuade

someone to sign a franchise contract, for instance? Or

to stop using your trademark without permission? Or to

come to a company reception?

Say clearly and convincingly what the issue is and

what you want to accomplish. With every sentence, ask

yourself whether you're advancing the cause. That will

help you ﬁ nd the best words to get your message across.

Form follows function

Say your ﬁ rm rents space in an ofﬁ ce building that has

thoroughly renovated the entrance and the entire ﬁ rst

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

ﬂ oor. Your general counsel has alerted you that the land-

lord has violated the Americans with Disabilities Act

(ADA). For example, there are no wheelchair-access

ramps or automatic doors. You've decided to write to the

landlord. But why are you writing? The answer to that

question determines much of what you'll say and all of

the tone that you'll use. Consider three versions of the

letter you might write:

Version #1

You're good friends with the landlord, but you think that

the law should be followed for the good of your employees

and your customers. Purpose: to gather more information.

Tone: friendly.

Dear Ann:

The new foyer looks fantastic. What a great way for us

and others in the building to greet customers and other

visitors. Thank you for undertaking the renovations.

Could it be that the work isn't ﬁ nished? No ac-

commodations have yet been made for wheelchair

accessibility—as required by law. Perhaps I'm jumping

the gun, and that part of the work just hasn't begun?

Please let me know.

Let's get together for lunch soon.

All the best,

Version #2

You're on good terms with the landlord, but on principle,

you don't like being in a building that isn't ADA- compliant.

You have a disabled employee on staﬀ , and you want the

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Know why you're writing

situation righted. Purpose: to correct the oversight. Tone:

more urgent.

Dear Ann:

Here at Bergson Company, we were delighted when

you renovated the ﬁ rst ﬂ oor and made it so much more

inviting to both tenants and visitors. We are troubled,

however, by the lack of wheelchair-access ramps and

automatic doors for handicapped employees and cus-

tomers, both of which are required by state and federal

law. Perhaps you're still planning that part of the reno-

vations. If so, please advise.

If this was a mere oversight, can you assure us that

construction on ramps and automatic doors will begin

within 60 days? Otherwise, as we understand it, we may

be obliged to report the violation to the Vermont Build-

ings Commission. Without the ﬁ xes, you may be subject

to some hefty ﬁ nes—but we feel certain that you have

every intention of complying with the law.

Sincerely,

Version #3

You've had repeated problems with the landlord, and you

have found a better rental property elsewhere for your

company. Purpose: to terminate your lease. Tone: ﬁ rm, but

without burning bridges.

Dear Ms. Reynolds:

Four weeks ago you ﬁ nished renovating the ﬁ rst ﬂ oor

of our building. Did you not seek legal counsel? You

have violated the Americans with Disabilities Act—as

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

well as state law—by failing to provide a wheelchair-

access ramp and automatic doors for handicapped visi-

tors and employees. Because four weeks have elapsed

since you completed the work, we are entitled under

state law to terminate our lease. This letter will serve as

our 30days' notice.

Although we have no doubt that your oversight was

a good-faith error, we hope that you understand why

we can't stay in the building and have made plans to go

elsewhere.

We hope to remain on friendly terms during and after

the move.

Sincerely,

These three letters are quite different because you are

writing them to accomplish different things. Focus on

the reaction you're trying to elicit from the reader. You

want results. Yet notice how even the sternest letter—

Version 3—maintains a civil tone to foster goodwill. No

hostility is necessary.

Recap

• Consider your purpose and your audience before

you begin writing, and let these guide both what

you say and how you say it.

• Plainly state the issue you're addressing and what

you hope to achieve.

• Keep your goal in mind: Don't undermine your ef-

forts with a hostile or inappropriate tone.

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Chapter 2

Understand

your readers

Communication is a two-way exercise. Without knowing

something about your readers—and about psychology

in general, for that matter—you'll rarely get your ideas

across. What are their goals and priorities? What pres-

sures do they face? What motivates them?

Respect readers' time constraints

The most important things to realize about all business

audiences are these:

• Your readers are busy—very busy.

• They have little if any sense of duty to read what

you put before them.

• If you don't get to your point pretty quickly, they'll

ignore you—just as you tend to ignore long, ram-

bling messages when you receive them.

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

• At the slightest need to struggle to understand

you, they'll stop trying—and think less of you.

• If they don't buy your message, you may as well

have stayed in bed that day.

Each of these universal tendencies becomes magniﬁ ed as

you ascend the ranks of an organization. Your job as a

writer, then, is to:

• Prove quickly that you have something valuable to

say—valuable to your readers, not just to you.

• Waste no time in saying it.

• Write with such clarity and efﬁ ciency that reading

your material is easy—even enjoyable.

• Use a tone that makes you likable, so that your

readers will want to spend time with you and your

message.

Do these things and you'll develop a larger reservoir of

goodwill. You'll not only have a genuinely competitive

edge, but you'll also save time and money.

Tailor your message

If you're writing a memo to colleagues, for example, con-

sider where they sit in the organization and what they're

expected to contribute to its success. Or if you're respond-

ing to a client's request for proposal, address every need

outlined in the RFP—but also think about the client's in-

dustry, company size, and culture. Your tone will change

depending on your recipients, and so will your content.

You'll highlight the things they care about most—the

ever-important "what's in it for them."

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Understand your readers

Connect with particular readers to

connect with large audiences

It's challenging to write for a large, diverse group of read-

ers, especially if you don't know them. But you can make

it easier by focusing on some speciﬁ c person you know.

In his preface to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Com-

mission's Plain English Handbook, Warren Buffett sug-

gests grounding your prose by having a particular reader

in mind:

When writing Berkshire Hathaway's annual report,

I pretend that I'm talking to my sisters. I have no

trouble picturing them: Though highly intelligent,

they are not experts in accounting or ﬁ nance. They will

understand plain English, but jargon may puzzle them.

My goal is simply to give them the information I would

wish them to supply me if our positions were reversed.

To succeed, I don't need to be Shakespeare; I must,

though, have a sincere desire to inform.

If you focus on a smart nonspecialist who's actually in

your audience—or, like Buffett, imagine that you're writ-

ing for a relative or a friend—you'll strike a balance be-

tween sophistication and accessibility. Your writing will

be more appealing and more persuasive.

Your readers may have little or no prior knowledge

about the facts or analysis you're disclosing. But assume

that they're intelligent people. They'll be able to follow

you if you give them the information they need, and they

won't be bamboozled by empty, airy talk.

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

NOT THIS:

We aspire to be a partner

primarily concerned with

providing our clients the

maximal acquisition of

future proﬁ ts and assets and

focus mainly on clients with

complex and multi-product

needs, large and midsized

corporate entities, individual

or multiple entrepreneurial

agents, and proﬁ t-maximizing

institutional clients. By listen-

ing attentively to their needs

and oﬀ ering them paramount

solutions, we empower those

who wish to gain access to

our services with the optimal

set of decisions in their pos-

sible action portfolio given

the economic climate at the

time of the advice as well as

the ﬁ scal constraints that

you are subject to. Against

the backdrop of signiﬁ cant

changes within our industry,

we strive to ensure that we

consistently help our clients

realize their goals and thrive,

and we continue to strengthen

the coverage of our key clients

by process-dedicated teams

of senior executives who can

deliver and utilize our inte-

grated business model. On

the back of a strong capital

position and high levels of

client satisfaction and brand

recognition, we have achieved

signiﬁ cant gains in market

share. We hope that you have

a favorable impression of our

company's quantitative and

qualitative attributes and will

be inclined to utilize our ser-

vices as you embark on your

ﬁ nancial endeavors.

BUT THIS:

We're a client-focused ﬁ rm

dedicated to making sure

you get the most out of our

services. Our client base

includes individual entrepre-

neurs, midsized companies,

and large corporations. If you

decide to do business with us,

we'll give you ﬁ nancial advice

that is in tune with the current

economy and with what you

can aﬀ ord to invest. For years,

we've consistently received

the highest possible industry

ratings, and we have won the

coveted Claiborne Award for

exceptional client satisfaction

17 of our 37 years in business.

We hope to have the opportu-

nity to work with you in your

ﬁ nancial endeavors.

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Understand your readers

Recap

• Understand that your readers have no time to

waste: Get to the point quickly and clearly to en-

sure that your message gets read.

• Use a tone appropriate for your audience.

• Emphasize the items most important to your

readers. If they can easily see how your message is

relevant to them, they will be more likely to read it

and respond.

• Choose an intelligent, nonspecialist member of

your audience to write for—or invent one—and

focus on writing for that person. Your message will

be more accessible and persuasive to all your read-

ers as a result.

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Chapter 3

Divide the writing

process into four

separate tasks

Do you feel anxious every time you sit down to write?

Your main difﬁ culty is probably ﬁ guring out how to

begin. Don't try to picture the completed piece before

you've gathered and organized your material. It's much

too soon to think about the ﬁ nal, polished product—and

you will just make the challenge ahead of you seem over-

whelming. The worry can take more out of you than the

actual writing.

Instead, break up your work. Think of writing not as

one huge task but as a series of smaller tasks. The poet,

writer, and teacher Betty Sue Flowers has envisioned

them as belonging to different characters in your brain:

MACJ.1 That stands for Madman–Architect– Carpenter–

1. Betty S. Flowers, "Madman, Architect, Carpenter, Judge: Roles and

the Writing Process," Proceedings of the Conference of College Teachers

of English 44 (1979): 7–10.

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

Judge, representing the phases that a writer must go

through:

• The Madman gathers material and generates ideas.

• The Architect organizes information by drawing up

an outline, however simple.

• The Carpenter puts your thoughts into words, lay-

ing out sentences and paragraphs by following the

Architect's plan.

• The Judge is your quality-control character, polish-

ing the expression throughout—everything from

tightening language to correcting grammar and

punctuation.

You'll be most efﬁ cient if you carry out these tasks

pretty much in this order. Sure, you'll do some looping

back. For example, you may need to draft more material

after you've identiﬁ ed holes to ﬁ ll. But do your best to

compartmentalize the discrete tasks and address them in

order.

Get the Madman started

Accept your good ideas gratefully whenever they come.

But if you're methodical about brainstorming at the be-

ginning of the process, you'll ﬁ nd that more and more of

your good ideas will come to you early—and you'll largely

prevent the problem of ﬁ nally thinking of your best point

after you've ﬁ nished and distributed your document.

Get your material from memory, from research, from

observation, from conversations with colleagues and oth-

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Divide the writing process into four separate tasks

ers, and from reasoning, speculation, and imagination.

The problem you're trying to solve may seem intractable,

and you may struggle to ﬁ nd a good approach. (How on

earth will you persuade the folks in ﬁ nance to approve

your budget request when they're turning down requests

left and right? How will you get the executive board to

adopt a new mind-set about a proposed merger?) Don't

get hung up on the size of the challenge. Gathering ideas

and facts up front will help you push through and defuse

anxiety about the writing.

How do you keep track of all this preliminary mate-

rial? In the old days, people used index cards. (I wrote my

ﬁ rst several books that way.) But today the easiest way is

to create a rough spreadsheet that contains the following:

• Labels indicating the points you're trying to

support.

• The data, facts, and opinions you're recording

under each point—taking care to put direct quotes

within quotation marks.

• Your sources. Include the title and page number

if citing a book or an article, the URL if citing an

online source. (When writing a formal document,

such as a report, see The Chicago Manual of Style

for information on proper sourcing.)

As you're taking notes, distinguish facts from opinions.

Be sure to give credit where it's due. You'll run aground if

you claim others' assertions as your own, because you'll

probably be unable to back them up convincingly. Worse,

you'll be guilty of plagiarism.

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

This groundwork will save you loads of time when

you're drafting and will help you create a well-supported,

persuasive document.

Let the Architect take the lead

You may feel frustrated at ﬁ rst as you're groping for a

way to organize your document. If a sensible approach

doesn't come to mind after you've done your research

and scouted for ideas, you may need to do more hunting

and gathering. You want to arrive at the point of writ-

ing down three sentences—complete propositions—that

convey your ideas. Then arrange them in the most logi-

cal order from the reader's point of view (see chapter 4).

That's your bare-bones outline, which is all you typically

need before you start drafting.

Give the Carpenter a tight schedule

The key to writing a sound ﬁ rst draft is to write as swiftly

as you can (you'll read more about this in chapter 5).

Later, you'll make corrections. But for now, don't slow

yourself down to perfect your wording. If you do, you'll

invite writer's block. Lock the Judge away at this stage,

and try to write in a headlong rush.

Call in the Judge

Once you've got it all down, it's time for deliberation—

weighing your words, ﬁ lling in gaps, amplifying here and

curtailing there. Make several sweeps, checking for one

thing at a time: the accuracy of your citations, the tone,

the quality of your transitions, and so on. (For an edito-

rial checklist, see chapter 6.) If you try to do many things

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Divide the writing process into four separate tasks

at once, you won't be doing any of them superbly. So leave

plenty of time for multiple rounds of editing—at least as

much time as you spent researching and writing. You'll

ferret out more problems, and you'll ﬁ nd better ﬁ xes for

them.

Recap

• Approach a writing project as a series of manage-

able tasks using the MACJ method.

• Use the Madman to gather research and other

material for the project, diligently keeping track

of quotations and sources. And allow more of your

best ideas to come early by methodically brain-

storming at the beginning of the process.

• As the Architect, organize the Madman's raw ma-

terial into a sensible outline. Distill your ideas into

three main propositions.

• In the Carpenter phase, write as quickly as

possible—without worrying about perfecting

your prose.

• Finally, assume the role of the Judge to edit,

polish, and improve the piece. Do this in several

distinct passes, each time focusing on only one ele-

ment of your writing.

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H6082.indb 18 H6082.indb 18 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Chapter 4

Before writing

in earnest, jot

down your three

main points—

in complete

sentences

A mathematician once told me that there are really only

four numbers in the world: one, two, three, and many.

There's something to that: Four items just seem to be one

too many for most people to hold in their memory. But a

proposal, a report, or any other piece of business writing

feels underdeveloped when it's supported by only one or

two points.

So write down your three main points as full sen-

tences, and spell out your logic as clearly as you can. That

way, you'll force yourself to think through your reasons

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

for recommending a vendor, for example, or pitching an

offer to a client—and you'll make a stronger case.

If you try to simply think things out as you write, you'll

run into trouble because you won't really know yet what

you're hoping your reader will think or do. You'll ﬂ ail

about, gradually clarifying your point as you make sev-

eral runs at it. In the end, after multiple attempts, you

may ﬁ nally ﬁ gure out what you have to say, but you prob-

ably won't say it in a way that your reader can follow.

An example of ﬁ nding your focus

Let's say your name is Carol Sommers, and you work

at a small management-consulting ﬁ rm. Your boss,

Steve, owns the business and is considering acquiring a

17,000-square-foot building as his new ofﬁ ce. Because

you're the ofﬁ ce manager, Steve has asked you to think

through the logistics and to write up your recommenda-

tions before the company makes an offer to purchase the

building. At ﬁ rst, you're at a loss—there are so many is-

sues to sort through. But you've got to start somewhere.

So before you write your memo, you put on your Mad-

man hat and brainstorm a list of considerations:

• Ownership

• Maintenance

• Buildout

• Security

• Ofﬁ ces vs. cubicles

• Real-estate values—comparables?

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Before writing in earnest, jot down your three main points

• The move—bids on movers?

• Timing

• Tax consequences

• Employee and visitor parking

• Environmental inspection and related issues

• Smooth transitioning: phone and Internet service,

mail forwarding, new stationery, updating busi-

ness contacts, subscriptions, etc.

• Insurance

• Leaving current landlord on good terms

• Taking signage to new location?

These are just topics, not fully formed thoughts. But now

that you have a rough list, you can start the Architect

phase of writing and categorize in threes.

Steve's responsibilities (before acquisition):

• Consider an environmental inspection to make

sure that the building has no hidden issues. Our

commercial realtor can help.

• Check with our accountant to ﬁ nd out what tax

consequences we might have depending on how

we time the closing.

• Ask the accountant and perhaps a tax lawyer

whether Steve should own the property personally,

whether the company should own it, or whether a

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

newly formed entity (an LLC, for example) should

own it. There may be liability issues.

My responsibilities (before acquisition):

• Cost out insurance coverage.

• Interview contractors for building out the space to

our satisfaction. (Note to self: Conﬁ rm that we can

roll the buildout into the mortgage.)

• Cost out the annual bill for providing the kind of

security we currently have.

My responsibilities (postacquisition):

• Contract for maintenance (cleaning and trash

services, lawn and parking-lot care).

• Plan the move, with a smooth transition in opera-

tions (the physical move, mail forwarding, phone

and Internet, new stationery, address updates, an-

nouncement to customers, moving signage, etc.).

• Help Steve plan the architectural buildout to foster

collaboration and use space efﬁ ciently.

To come up with all this, put yourself in Steve's place,

imagining what you'd want your ofﬁ ce manager to think

of to help you do your job better. But it also takes a little

legwork—for example, talking to people at ﬁ rms that

have recently changed locations or acquired buildings.

Can't ﬁ nd anyone like that through your network? Ask

the commercial realtor to put you in touch with one or

two of its clients.

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Before writing in earnest, jot down your three main points

For each stage, we've listed the three big issues—at least

what we think they are. Look how easy it is now to begin

your Carpenter work (writing a useful memo to Steve):

Memo

To: Steve Haskell

From: Carol Sommers

Re: The Prospective Purchase of 1242 Maple Avenue

Date: April 12, 2012

As you requested, I've thought through the logistics of

purchasing and moving into the Maple Avenue property.

Here are my suggestions for each stage of the process.

Now

I'd like your approval to tackle the following tasks im-

mediately because they'll give us a more complete

picture of how expensive the acquisition and move

would be:

• Cost out insurance coverage.

• Interview contractors for building out the space

to our satisfaction. (I've checked with the bank to

see if we can roll the buildout into the mortgage,

and we can.)

• Cost out the annual bill for providing the kind of

security we currently have.

Preclosing

If you decide to go forward with the purchase and your

oﬀ er is accepted, I'll take care of these items before we

close on the loan:

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

• Arrange for at least one thorough inspection of

the building.

• Work with our accountant, to the extent you'd

like, to get papers in order for obtaining the bank

ﬁ nancing you mentioned.

• Ensure that all due-diligence deadlines are met.

After Closing

After closing, I'll get into the nuts and bolts of the move:

• Help you plan the architectural buildout to foster

collaboration and use space eﬃ ciently.

• Plan the move, with a smooth transition in

operations (the physical move, mail forward-

ing, phone and Internet, new stationery, address

updates, announcement to customers, moving

signage,etc.).

• Contract for maintenance (cleaning and trash

services, lawn and parking-lot care).

Issues for You to Think About

While I'm attending to the details above, you might

want to:

• Consider environmental and structural inspec-

tions to make sure the building has no hidden is-

sues. Our commercial realtor says he can provide

guidance—I'd be happy to set up a meeting if

you like.

• Check with our accountant to ﬁ nd out what tax

consequences we might have depending on how

we time the closing.

• Ask the accountant and perhaps a tax lawyer

whether you should own the property person-

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Before writing in earnest, jot down your three main points

ally (highly unlikely), whether Haskell Company

should own it, or whether a newly formed en-

tity (such as an LLC) should own it. You or the

company may face liability issues with outright

ownership.

Of course, I'm always on hand to take on whatever tasks

you need. Just let me know.

Prewriting in threes resulted in a clear, useful memo. It

helped us forestall writer's block, organize the material,

and make concise, well-reasoned recommendations.

But did you notice that the ﬁ nished memo breaks

things down into four categories, not three? As hard as

I tried to think of everything before writing the memo,

I couldn't. Looking at my preliminary list, I identiﬁ ed

a gap in time—a period in which there would be other

necessary tasks. So I added the preclosing category and

wrote those items on the ﬂ y. But I probably wouldn't have

come up with them if I hadn't started with a plan. Orga-

nizing my main points in sets of three helped me see the

preclosing gap; after that, ﬁ lling it in wasn't difﬁ cult.

The order of categories changed, too. Why move

Steve's tasks from the beginning to the end? The memo

was about what you, Carol Sommers, the ofﬁ ce manager,

could do for Steve. To think of your responsibilities, you

needed to think of Steve's. That was your starting point

for brainstorming—but not for your memo.

You couldn't very well lead by telling your boss what he

needs to do. That's not your place, and that's not what he

asked for. So Steve's to-dos can go at the end, as helpful

reminders. That way, you can focus his attention mainly

on items you'll take care of to make his decisions easier.

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

Recap

• Find your focus by ﬁ rst generating a list of topics

to cover.

• Develop these raw ideas into full sentences and

categorize your main points in sets of three.

• Arrange these sets in a logical order, keeping your

reader's needs in mind.

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Chapter 5

Write in

full—rapidly

Once you've written your three main points so that you

know where you're going, you're in Carpenter mode—

ready to put together the ideas you've generated and or-

ganized. Write as quickly as possible. Your sentences will

be shorter than they otherwise would be, your idioms will

be more natural, and your draft should start taking shape

before you know it. If there's a painful part of writing, it's

doing the ﬁ rst draft. When you shorten the duration, it's

not as painful.

Time yourself

To prevent premature fussing, write against the clock.

(Creative writers call this speed writing. They often use

it as an exercise to get juices ﬂ owing.) Allow yourself 5 or

10 minutes to draft each section—the opener, the body,

and the closer—and set the timer on your computer or

phone to keep yourself honest.

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

Don't edit as you go

It's counterproductive to allow the Judge and the Car-

penter to work side by side. That's essentially multitask-

ing—you're just doing two things inefﬁ ciently rather than

simultaneously. And besides, the editorial part of the

brain is simply incompatible with the production part.

Who needs a fault-ﬁ nding critic's kibitzing when you're

trying to create something new and fresh? You're best off

keeping the Judge away as you produce your ﬁ rst draft.

You'll spend plenty of time editing later.

Don't wait for inspiration

Inspiration rarely comes when you want it to. After the

careful planning you've done, you won't need it anyway.

As the management expert Peter Drucker famously said

about innovation, good writing takes careful, conscious

work, not a "ﬂ ash of genius."

If you follow the MACJ process, you'll inspire your-

self—and minimize your procrastinating. Once the Mad -

man and the Architect have worked, you should be

primed to write. Schedule the time when the Carpen-

ter is to begin, and when the appointed time comes, get

started.

Begin by writing in support of what you're most com-

fortable addressing. When you get stuck, skip to some-

thing else. You need to get into a ﬂ ow. If you're still strug-

gling when you come back to that problem passage, say

out loud (to yourself or to a colleague) what you're trying

to convey. Sometimes speaking will help you ﬁ nd the right

words. The point is to get your ideas on paper—knowing

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Write in full—rapidly

that you'll still have time to elaborate and perfect them at

the next stage.

Recap

• Write your ﬁ rst draft as quickly as you can.

• Don't get stuck waiting for inspiration. Try giv-

ing yourself 5 to 10 minutes for each section when

drafting.

• Resist the urge to perfect as you write. Saving the

editing until the draft is ﬁ nished will keep the

Judge from getting in your way.

• Schedule a time for the Carpenter to work—and

when that time comes, begin.

• If you ﬁ nd yourself stumped, move on to a dif-

ferent section you're more comfortable with and

come back to the problem once you've found

your ﬂ ow.

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Chapter 6

Improve what

you've written

Once you've written a complete draft, you'll revise ﬁ rst

and then edit. Revising is a reconsideration of what

you're saying as a whole, and where you're saying it. It's

rethinking the ﬂ oor plan. Editing is more a matter of

ﬁ ne-tuning sentences and paragraphs. You need to allow

time for both. On the one hand, don't let some neurotic

obsession with perfectionism delay important projects.

On the other hand, don't rashly send things out without

proper vetting and improvement.

Revising

As a reviser, you're asking several questions:

• Have I been utterly truthful?

• Have I said all that I need to say?

• Have I been appropriately diplomatic and fair?

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

• Do I have three parts to the piece—an opener, a

middle, and a closer?

• In my opener, have I made my points quickly and

clearly? And concretely?

• Have I avoided a slow wind-up that unnecessarily

postpones the message?

• In the middle, have I proved my points with speciﬁ cs?

• Is the structure immediately apparent to my read-

ers? Have I used informative headings?

• Is my closer consistent with the rest—yet ex-

pressed freshly? Have I avoided lame repetition?

Editing

When it comes to editing, you're asking different ques-

tions as you read through your sentences and paragraphs:

• Can I save some words here?

• Is there a better way of phrasing this idea?

• Is my meaning unmistakable?

• Can I make it more interesting?

• Is the expression relaxed but reﬁ ned?

• Does one sentence glide into the next, without

discontinuities?

An example of revising and editing

To understand the process more concretely, let's take a

look at how an internal memo takes shape through three

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Improve what you've written

drafts. The ﬁ rst draft is not very clear and omits impor-

tant information, but the germ of an idea is there:

First Draft

To: All Sales Personnel

From: Chris Hedron

Subject: Changes in Order-Processing Procedure

In order to facilitate the customers' placement of

orders, a new order-processing procedure has been

designed. The process will require a customer to enter

the product and/or service code into our order-entry

system, which will then generate a quote for the job and

return it to the customer for approval. This will make

time for the customer to review the quote and transmit

any changes before work begins. Upon receipt of the

customer's written approval, the quote will be trans-

formed into a work order. This procedure will make it

easier and faster for us to process customers' orders.

This memo needs some ampliﬁ cation, especially in the

realms of who, what, why, and when. The second draft,

a full-ﬂ edged revision, ﬂ eshes out much that was unclear

about the ﬁ rst draft.

Second Draft

To: All Sales Personnel

From: Chris Hedron

Subject: New Work-Order-Processing Procedure

Because our current work-order-processing proce-

dure requires a lot of paperwork and phone calls, it's

diﬃ cult for customers to make changes prior to the

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

commencement of work. The procedure is ineﬃ cient

and subject to numerous errors. And it takes up to four

weeks from quote to approval to work order. So we have

designed a new four-step order-processing procedure

that will allow customers to place orders through our

website and allow us to begin jobs faster.

Beginning in January 2013, we will inform our cus-

tomers about the new procedure, and on April 20, 2013,

we will implement the new procedure, which will work

as follows. First, to initiate or change a work order,

customers can visit our website to request a quote by

ﬁ lling out a detailed form and providing a purchase-

order number. Second, we will transmit a quote to the

customer for approval. Third, if the customer approves,

they can return the quote with an electronic signature

and purchase-order number. Fourth, we will transform

the quote to a work order immediately. Work-order

changes can be made using the same procedure except

that instead of a quote, customers will request a work-

order change.

The focus there was on saying all that needed to be

said—not on reﬁ ning the expression. Now, though, it's

possible to engage in ﬁ ne-tuning and to produce a much-

improved draft.

Third Draft

To: All Sales Personnel

From: Chris Hedron

Subject: New Work-Order-Processing Procedure

Our current work-order processing takes a lot of paper-

work and phone calls, so it's hard for our customers to

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Improve what you've written

make changes to the work before it begins. The proce-

dure is ineﬃ cient and subject to error. And it takes up

to four weeks from quote to approval to work order. We

have therefore designed a new four-step procedure that

has two key beneﬁ ts: (1)Customers can place orders

through our website, and (2)we can start jobs faster.

Beginning January 2013, we'll tell our customers

about the new procedure. On April 20, 2013, we'll im-

plement it. The new procedure will work in four steps:

• Customers can visit our website to request a

quote for a job by ﬁ lling out a form and providing

a purchase-order number.

• We'll then send a quote for the customer's

approval.

• The customer can return the approved quote with

a digital signature.

• We'll instantly convert the quote to a work order.

Work-order changes can be made using the same pro-

cedure except that instead of a quote, customers will

request a work-order change.

Recap

• Allow yourself ample time to revise and edit

your work.

• Consider your draft in its entirety. Take a fresh

look at your content and structure: Have you

said everything you need to—and in the most

effec tive way?

• Then edit your work, ﬁ ne-tuning to tighten,

sharpen, and reﬁ ne your prose.

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Chapter 7

Use graphics

to illustrate

and clarify

When you're writing about complex ideas, for example,

or looking for useful ways to break up a long stretch of

text, you can use a simple, elegant chart to convey critical

information at a glance. Such graphics especially serve

people who want to skim what you've written.

A few crucial principles:

• Make sure your graphics illustrate something dis-

cussed in the text.

• Place them near the text they illustrate, preferably

on the same page or on a facing page.

• Use legends and keys that readers can easily grasp.

To learn how to produce effective graphics, con-

sult the books of Edward Tufte, especially Envisioning

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Delivering the Goods Quickly and Clearly

Information and Beautiful Evidence. You'll marvel at the

amount of learning and the sophisticated thought that lie

behind superb visuals.

It would be gross negligence to leave off without a

graphic, so here's one to round out the section. Note that

when you ﬂ ip through this book, your eye stops here.

That's because any departure from the norm achieves a

special emphasis. If every third or fourth page had such a

Key point: Consider your audience's concerns,

motivations, and background.

Who are you

writing for?

Why are you

writing?

Key point: Keep your purpose ﬁrmly in mind.

Every sentence should advance it.

Key point: Include only the main points and

details that will get your message across.

Key point: State your time frame.

Key point: Make it clear to readers how you're

meeting their needs.

What needs

saying?

When are you

expecting

actions to be

taken?

How will your

communication

beneﬁt your

readers?

FIGURE 

The Who-Why-What-When-How Chart

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Use graphics to illustrate and clarify

chart, the effect would be nulliﬁ ed. So make your graph-

ics distinctive—and don't overuse them.

Recap

• Distill your report (or part of it) into a chart, dia-

gram, or other visual aid that helps your audience

understand the content and its import.

• Take your design cues from visuals you have found

effective.

• Read the books of Edward Tufte to develop this

skill.

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Section 2

Developing

Your Skills

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Chapter 8

Be relentlessly

clear

Clarity can be a double-edged sword. When you're forth-

right enough to take a position or recommend a course

of action, you're sticking your neck out. People who don't

want to commit make their writing muddy. Perhaps they're

trying to leave room for their views to evolve as events un-

fold. Or perhaps they're hoping they can later claim credit

for good results and deny responsibility for bad ones.

The fact is, though, that many readers will perceive

them not as savvy wait-and-see participants but as spine-

less herd-followers who are slow to see (much less seize)

opportunities within their reach. So clean up the mud.

Adopt the reader's perspective

Always judge clarity from the reader's standpoint—not

your own. Try showing a draft to colleagues with fresh

eyes and asking them what they think your main points

are. If they can't do that accurately, then you're not being

clear enough.

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Developing Your Skills

Your ideal should be to write so unmistakably that

your readers can't possibly misunderstand or misinter-

pret. Anything that requires undue effort from them

won't be read with full attention—and is bound to be

misunderstood.

Keep your language simple

Simplicity breeds clarity. Strive to use short words and

sentences. Over the years, research has conﬁ rmed again

and again that the optimal average for readable sen-

tences is no more than 20 words. You'll need variety to

hold interest—some very short sentences and some lon-

ger ones—but aim for an average of 20 words. With every

sentence, ask yourself whether you can say it more brieﬂ y.

If you're writing about technical matters for an audi-

ence of nonspecialists—for example, explaining the ben-

eﬁ ts of a software upgrade to end users or putting to-

gether an investment primer for your company's 401(k)

participants—don't try to deﬁ ne each term in the sen-

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Eﬃ ciency measures that have

been implemented by the com-

pany with strong involvement

of senior management have

generated cost savings while

at the very same time assisting

in the building of a culture that

is centered around the value

of eﬃ ciency. We anticipate

that, given this excising of

unnecessary expenditures

and enhanced control of other

expenditures, the overall prof-

itability of the company will be

increased in the near term of

up to four quarters.

Our senior management

team has cut costs and

made the company more

eﬃ cient. We expect to be

more proﬁ table for the next

four quarters.

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Be relentlessly clear

tence where it ﬁ rst appears. That will bulk up your sen-

tences and make the material even harder for people to

grasp. Sometimes you'll need a new sentence or even a

new paragraph to explain a term or concept in simple,

straightforward English.

Show, don't tell

You probably heard writing teachers in school say, "Show,

don't tell." It's excellent advice no matter what you're writ-

ing—even business documents. The point is to be spe-

ciﬁ c enough that you lead your readers to draw their own

conclusions (conclusions that match yours, of course), as

opposed to simply expressing your opinions without sup-

port and hoping people will buy them.

Consider these examples:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

He was a bad boss. He got a promotion based on

his assistant's detailed re-

ports, but then—despite the

company's record proﬁ ts—

denied that assistant even

routine cost-of-living raises.

The company lost its focus and

ﬂ oundered.

The CEO acquired ﬁ ve un-

related subsidiaries—as far

aﬁ eld as a paper company

and a retailer of children's

toys—and then couldn't ser-

vice the $26 million in debt.

The shares of OJM stock issued

to Pantheon stockholders in

the merger will constitute a

signiﬁ cant proportion of the

outstanding stock of OJM after

the merger. Based on this signif-

icant proportion, it is expected

that OJM will issue millions of

OJM shares to Pantheon stock-

holders in the merger.

We expect that OJM will is-

sue about 320 million shares

of its stock to Pantheon

shareholders in the merger.

That ﬁ gure will account

for about 42% of OJM's

outstanding stock after the

merger.

H6082.indb 45 H6082.indb 45 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Developing Your Skills

WRITE LETTERS TO SHARPEN YOUR SKILLS

Your letter writing is the best barometer of your writ-

ing skills generally. And it's a safe way to practice—to

prepare yourself for your more diﬃ cult writing tasks.

Write thank-you letters, congr atulatory letters, letters

of recommendation (when asked), complaint letters,

letters to the editor, personal notes (handwritten), and

all sorts of others. If you can write good letters, you can

write just about anything. (See chapter 19, "Business

Letters," for pointers on how.) That's because they help

you to focus on others . When you write a letter, you're

connecting with one particular recipient. And letters

help you build goodwill with people. An e-mail mes-

sage may create an impression, but it's far less likely to

be remembered than a personal letter is.

To develop the habit, try writing a few letters a

week. Make many of them handwritten notes. (When

you receive one in a stack of mail, isn't that the ﬁ rst

thing that grabs your attention?) They're personal and,

if well done, memorable and even savable. They'll

help you build and maintain relationships. Write them

to tell those you supervise how much you appreciate

their hard work, congratulate colleagues on promo-

tions, motivate team members to meet goals, let new

partners know you're eager to start collaborating, and

so on. To write a good one, keep it neat, try limiting it

to one page, make it warm and friendly, use you more

than I, and use tasteful, mature stationery.

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Be relentlessly clear

A short, vague sentence (like "He was a bad boss") may

pression that's potentially biased. It's credible only if its

source is highly credible. As for the long, vague sentence

about OJM stock, there's nothing for readers to hold on

to, and they'll get tired trying.

Concrete business writing is persuasive because it's

evidence-based, clear, and memorable. When you supply

meaningful, objective details (explaining, for example, that

the ﬂ oundering company "couldn't service the $26 million

in debt"), you're sharing information, not just your opin-

ion that the company "lost its focus." You earn credibility

by demonstrating a command of the facts. You also give

your message staying power. People don't care about—or

even remember—abstractions the way they do speciﬁ cs.

So if you're marketing your ﬁ rm's consulting services

to potential clients, don't just tell them you'll save them

money. Say how much money you've saved others. Don't

just promise that you'll make their lives easier. List the

time-consuming tasks you'll take off their hands. Don't

just claim to have deep experience in the health care

industry. Name names: Mention several hospitals and

medical centers you've done work for, and include testi-

monials saying how happy clients are with the time and

money you've saved them.

Recap

• Put yourself in the reader's shoes to assess your

clarity. Better yet, see whether a colleague can ac-

curately summarize the main points of your draft

from a quick read-through.

H6082.indb 47 H6082.indb 47 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Developing Your Skills

• Phrase your ideas as plainly and brieﬂ y as possible,

aiming for an average sentence length of 20 or

fewer words.

• Pave your readers' way with concrete details. Don't

try to push them there with abstract assertions.

• Cultivate your letter writing to improve your writ-

ing skills more generally.

H6082.indb 48 H6082.indb 48 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Chapter 9

Learn to

summarize—

accurately

A good summary is focused and speciﬁ c—and it's at the

beginning of your document so readers don't have to dig.

It gets to the point. It lays the foundation for what's to fol-

low. There's no holding back on the crucial information.

Consider the difference between these two openers to

a recommendation that a proposal be rejected:

NOT THIS:

Summary

The cell phone changeover that has been proposed should

be rejected. For the reasons stated below, the company would

not be well served by accepting the proposal.

H6082.indb 49 H6082.indb 49 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Developing Your Skills

BUT THIS:

Summary

Last year, we adopted an oﬃ cewide policy of issuing cell phones

to all executives and sales reps at an annual cost of $58,000

(including voice and data plans). The Persephone company has

proposed that we switch to its phones and service at an annual

cost of $37,000. The committee charged with evaluating this

proposal recommends that we reject it for four reasons:

1. The new plans would have signiﬁ cantly less coverage in

Europe and Asia, so our international sales reps might

suﬀ er lost opportunities.

2. Our current provider has been highly responsive and has

tailored its service to our needs.

3. The $21,000 savings is dwarfed by potential costs (even

one dropped sales call could result in a loss of much

more money than that).

4. Persephone's customer service appears from credible

online reviews to be inferior.

What makes the second version better? It can be fully un-

derstood by anyone who reads it—at any time. The ﬁ rst

version, by contrast, assumes familiarity: It's clear to only

a few "insiders"—and for only a limited period. And be-

cause it's vague, it lacks the credibility that the second

version earns through speciﬁ cs.

Struggling to incorporate the right amount of detail to

make your summary clear and useful? Write a descrip-

tive outline of your document—summarize each para-

graph or section with a sentence that captures the who,

what, when, where, why, and how—and try creating your

overall summary out of that. Also, keep your readers'

needs foremost in your mind. What questions will people

have when they open your document? Provide brief but

concrete answers to those questions. These will assure

readers that what follows will matter to them.

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Learn to summarize—accurately

Be brief—but not too brief

People often assume that shorter is better when it comes

to summaries. But brevity without substance is worth-

less. Never say more than the occasion demands—but

never say less, either. Adopt the reader's perspective: Fill

in as much information as it takes to get people up to

speed. Think of your summary as the CliffsNotes version

of your document. Although the second example is lon-

ger, it conveys the whole gist of the message. And there's

not one wasted word, which brings us to our next chapter.

Recap

• Summarize the vital information at the beginning

of the document.

• Summarize each section with a sentence that ad-

dresses "the ﬁ ve Ws" (who, what, when, where,

why) and how—and use these sentences to build

your general summary.

• Provide only the information the reader needs to

understand the issue—no more and no less.

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H6082.indb 52 H6082.indb 52 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Chapter 10

Waste no words

Make every word count. When you mean before, don't say

or write prior to, much less prior to the time when.

Though prior to is a linguistic choice that the diction-

ary offers us, it's a bad choice. Never use two words for

one, three words for two, and so on. Syllables add up

fast and slow people down. Of course, stick to idiomatic

English. Don't start dropping articles (a, an, the) where

we'd all normally expect them. And don't cut the impor-

tant word that left and right—more often than not, you

really need it to be clear. But remove all the words that

aren't performing a real function. Doing so saves readers

time and effort and makes your ideas easier to grasp and

apply.

Wordiness can exist on many levels, from rambling

statements to unnecessary repetition to verbose expres-

sions that could be replaced by shorter, sharper alterna-

tives. Whatever the manifestation, it's bad. Consider the

following examples:

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Developing Your Skills

To trim extra words from your documents, try:

• Deleting every preposition that you can, especially

of: change April of 2013 to April 2013 and point of

view to viewpoint.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

The trend in the industry

is toward self-generation

by some companies of

their own websites, and

Internet technology is

changing the nature of

training necessary to

acquire the skill of

website development

at an acceptable level of

sophistication, so that

this activity can more

and more be handled

in-house.

[49 words]

Since Internet technology

makes it easier than ever to

develop sophisticated web-

sites, some companies now

develop their own in-house.

[19 words]

We are unable to ﬁ ll

your order at this point

in time because there is

an ongoing dock strike

that aﬀ ects our

operations.

[23 words]

We cannot ﬁ ll your order

right now because of the dock

strike.

[12 words]

I am writing in response

to a number of issues

that have arisen with

regard to the recent

announcement that

there will be an increase

in the charge for the use

of our lobby computers.

[35 words]

You may have heard that we're

raising the fees for using our

lobby computers.

[14 words]

The greater number of

these problems can

readily be dealt with in

such a way as to bring

about satisfactory solutions.

[21 words]

Most of these problems can be

readily solved.

[8 words]

H6082.indb 54 H6082.indb 54 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Waste no words

• Replacing every –ion word with a verb if you can.

Change was in violation of to violated and pro-

vided protection to to protected.

• Replacing is, are, was, and were with stronger

verbs where you can. Change was hanging to hung

and is indicative of to indicates.

You'll see all three tricks at work here:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

The manufacturers of tools

for gardening have been the

victims of a compression

factor that has resulted in

an increase in units on the

market accompanied by a

negative disproportionate

rise of prices.

[36 words]

The garden-tool industry has

suﬀ ered from an oversupply

of units coupled with rising

prices.

[14 words]

For the near and intermediate

future in terms of growth

goals, Bromodrotics, Inc., is

evaluating its corporate

design needs. The purpose

of this short-term and

intermediate-term evaluation

is to make a determination as

to how the image of the

company might best be

positioned to be of assistance

to the sales force in meeting

its growth goals.

[57 words]

To increase sales, Bromodrotics

needs to improve its image.

[9 words]

Ruthlessly cut words from your ﬁ rst draft, so long as

you remain faithful to the sounds and rhythms of nor-

mal, down-to-earth English. Don't compress words to

the point of sounding curt or unnatural.

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Developing Your Skills

One other trick in that last example: eliminating pad-

ding such as in terms of and the purpose of. Sometimes

you'll ﬁ nd even worse phrases:

in this connection it might be observed that

it is important to bear in mind that

it is interesting that

it is notable that

it is worthwhile to note that

it should be pointed out that

it will be remembered that

Leave all these things unsaid—without saying it goes

without saying that . . . .

Recap

• Never use more words than necessary: If you can

say it in two words instead of three, do so—as long

as the result still sounds natural.

• Tighten your prose by removing inessential prepo-

sitions, replacing abstract –ion nouns with action

verbs where possible, and replacing wordy be-verb

phrases with more direct simple verbs.

• Eliminate padding that doesn't contribute to your

meaning.

H6082.indb 56 H6082.indb 56 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Chapter 11

Be plain-spoken:

Avoid bizspeak

It's mission-critical to be plain-spoken, whether you're

trying to be best-of-breed at outside-the-box thinking

or simply incentivizing colleagues to achieve a paradigm

shift in core-performance value-adds. Leading-edge le-

veraging of your plain-English skill set will ensure that

your actionable items synergize future-proof assets with

your global-knowledge repository.

Just kidding. Seriously, though, it's important to write

plainly. You want to sound like a person, not an institu-

tion. But it's hard to do, especially if you work with people

who are addicted to buzzwords. It takes a lot of practice.

Back when journalists were somewhat more fastidi-

ous with the language than they are today, newspaper

editors often kept an "index expurgatorius": a roster of

words and phrases that under no circumstances (except

perhaps in a damning quote) would ﬁ nd their way into

print. Here's such a list for the business writer. Of course,

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Developing Your Skills

it's just a starting point—add to it as you come across

other examples of bizspeak that hinder communication

by substituting clichés for actual thought.

Bizspeak Blacklist

actionable (apart from legal action)

agreeance

as per

at the end of the day

back of the envelope

bandwidth (outside electronics)

bring our A game

client-centered

come-to-Jesus

core competency

CYA

drill down

ducks in a row

forward initiative

going forward

go rogue

guesstimate

H6082.indb 58 H6082.indb 58 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Be plain-spoken: Avoid bizspeak

harvesting efﬁ ciencies

hit the ground running

impact (as verb)

incent

incentivize

impactful

kick the can down the road

Let's do lunch.

Let's take this ofﬂ ine.

level the playing ﬁ eld

leverage (as verb)

liaise

mission-critical

monetize

net-net

on the same page

operationalize

optimize

out of pocket (except in reference to expenses)

paradigm shift

parameters

H6082.indb 59 H6082.indb 59 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Developing Your Skills

per

planful

pursuant to

push the envelope

putting lipstick on a pig

recontextualize

repurpose

rightsized

sacred cow

scalable

seamless integration

seismic shift (outside earthquake references)

smartsized

strategic alliance

strategic dynamism

synergize; synergy

think outside the box

throw it against the wall and see if it sticks

throw under the bus

turnkey

H6082.indb 60 H6082.indb 60 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Be plain-spoken: Avoid bizspeak

under the radar

utilization; utilize

value-added

verbage (the correct term is verbiage —in reference

only to verbose phrasings)

where the rubber meets the road

win-win

These phrases have become voguish in business—ab-

stain if you can. Sometimes people use them to enhance

their own sense of belonging or to sound "in the know."

Or they've been taught that good writing is hyperformal,

so they stiffen up when they use a keyboard or pick up a

pen, and they pile on the clichés.

It takes experience to bring your written voice into line

with your spoken voice and to polish it so well that no one

notices the polish.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

The reduction in monthly

assessments which will occur

beginning next month has

been made ﬁ nancially fea-

sible as a result of leveraging

our substantial reductions in

expenditures.

We'll be cutting your assess-

ments beginning next month

because we've saved on

expenses.

It is to be noted that a con-

siderable amount of savings

has been made possible

by reason of our planful

initiation of more eﬃ cient

and eﬀ ective purchasing

procedures.

We've saved considerable sums

by streamlining our purchases.

H6082.indb 61 H6082.indb 61 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Developing Your Skills

Hunt for oﬀ ending phrases

Start looking for bizspeak in all kinds of documents,

from memos to marketing plans, and you'll ﬁ nd it every-

where. You'll eventually learn to spot it—and avoid it—in

your own writing. You'll omit canned language such as

Attached please ﬁ nd and other phrases that only clutter

your message.

Bizspeak may seem like a convenient shorthand, but

it suggests to readers that you're on autopilot, thought-

lessly using boilerplate phrases that people have heard

over and over. Brief, readable documents, by contrast,

show care and thought. Attached please ﬁ nd is just one

example among many:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

at your earliest convenience as soon as you can

in light of the fact that because

we are in receipt of we've received

as per our telephone

conversation on today's date

as we discussed this

morning

Pursuant to your instructions,

I met with Roger Smith today

regarding the above-mentioned.

As you asked, I met with

Roger Smith today.

Please be advised that the

deadline for the above-

mentioned competition is

Monday, April 2, 2012.

The deadline is April 2, 2012.

Thank you for your courtesy

and cooperation regarding

this matter.

Thank you.

Thank you in advance for your

courtesy and cooperation in this

regard. Please do not hesitate

to contact me if you have any

questions regarding this request.

Thank you. If you have any

questions, please call.

H6082.indb 62 H6082.indb 62 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Be plain-spoken: Avoid bizspeak

Writing plainly means expressing ideas as straight-

forwardly as you can—without sacriﬁ cing meaning or

tone.

Take Warren Buffett again, one of the smartest busi-

ness leaders on the planet—and someone, by the way, who

cares a lot about good business writing. Consider how

he rewrote a short passage that he found in a ﬁ nancial-

services ﬁ rm's business prospectus. Read through the

ﬁ rst excerpt before you read Buffett's translation below it,

and note the bizspeak phrases that landed on the cutting-

room ﬂ oor as Buffett tightened and translated:

NOT THIS:

Maturity and duration management decisions are made in the

context of an intermediate maturity orientation. The maturity

structure of the portfolio is adjusted in the anticipation of

cyclical interest-rate changes. Such adjustments are not made

in an eﬀ ort to capture short-term, day-to-day movements in

the market, but instead are implemented in anticipation of

longer-term, secular shifts in the interest rates (i.e., shifts

transcending and/or not inherent to the business cycle). Adjust-

ments made to shorten portfolio maturity and duration are

made to limit capital losses during periods when interest rates

are expected to rise. Conversely, adjustments made to lengthen

maturation for the portfolio's maturity and duration strategy lies

in the analysis of the U.S. and global economies, focusing on

levels of real interest rates, monetary and ﬁ scal policy actions,

and cyclical indicators.

Words: 136

Sentences: 5 (All passive voice)

Average sentence length: 27.2

Flesch Reading Ease: 8.2

BUT THIS:

We will try to proﬁ t by correctly predicting future interest

rates. When we have no strong opinion, we will generally hold

intermediate-term bonds. But when we expect a major and

sustained increase in rates, we will concentrate on short-term

H6082.indb 63 H6082.indb 63 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Developing Your Skills

issues. And conversely, if we expect a major shift to lower rates,

we will buy long bonds. We will focus on the big picture and

won't make moves based on short-term considerations.

Words: 74

Sentences: 5 (None passive voice)

Average sentence length: 14.8

Flesch Reading Ease: 60.1

If you analyze the before-and-after prospectuses under

the Flesch Reading Ease (FRE) scale—a test developed by

readability expert Rudolf Flesch to measure the compre-

hensibility of written passages using word and sentence

length—you can quantify the difference. The higher the

score, the easier the passage is to read and comprehend.

On a scale of 0–100, the original 136-word prospectus on

top scores an 8.2. In contrast, Warren Buffett's revision

below it scores a 60.1. To give some perspective, Reader's

Digest scores 65 on the FRE scale, Time magazine around

52, and the Harvard Law Review in the low 30s. Increas-

ing a passage's readability is not the same as "dumbing

it down." The revised passage above gives the reader the

same information—but more clearly.

Here's a shorter example, this time from a community

college's mission statement:

NOT THIS:

The object of this enterprise is to facilitate the development of

greater capacities for community colleges and not-for-proﬁ t

neighborhood organizations to engage in heightened collabora-

tion in regard to the provision of community services that would

maximize the available resources from a number of community

stakeholders and to provide a greater level of communication

about local prioritization of educational needs with the particu-

lar community.

[63 words]

H6082.indb 64 H6082.indb 64 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Be plain-spoken: Avoid bizspeak

BUT THIS:

This project seeks to help community colleges and nonproﬁ t

neighborhood groups work more eﬃ ciently together.

[15 words]

In both the Buffett example and the community- college

example, the original versions seem to be aiming at

something other than getting the point across. Perhaps

the writers wanted to sound impressive, or wanted to ob-

scure what they were actually up to, or wanted to cover

up the fact that they weren't entirely sure what they were

up to. Whatever the answer, the original styles won't

work on any target audience.

Recap

• Aim to write as naturally as you speak: Sound like

a human being, not a corporation.

• Avoid boilerplate phrases that weigh down your

language and suggest lazy thinking.

• Increase readability by expressing your ideas as

directly as possible.

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H6082.indb 66 H6082.indb 66 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Chapter 12

Use chronology

when giving a

factual account

Stories are inherently chronological. One thing happens,

then another, then another. That structure works well

not only in books and ﬁ lms but also in business writing.

It's more likely to be clear and efﬁ cient, and to keep read-

ers interested. So include "just the facts, ma'am," as Joe

Friday on the old TV series Dragnet used to say. Just the

facts that matter, and in the right order.

In theory this point seems obvious, but in practice

writers ﬁ nd storytelling difﬁ cult. They often dive straight

into the middle without orienting their readers, and the

inevitable result is confusion on the receiving end. You're

familiar with this phenomenon. It happens all the time

in conversations with friends or family members: "Wait a

minute. Back up. When was this? Where were you? And

why were you talking to this guy? And where'd he come

from?"

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Developing Your Skills

Suppose you're sending an e-mail message to give the

status of an ongoing project, and it's been some time

since the last update. The recipient isn't as immersed

in the project as you are and probably has many other

things going on. So remind your reader where things

stood when you last communicated about the subject,

and describe what's happened since then:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Sarah—

It was hard making

headway with Jim Martinez,

but ﬁ nally we're looking (in

the best-case scenario) at a

demonstration of what our

software can do by mid-May,

as I established in my ﬁ rst

telephone conference with

Jim last Monday at 9:00

a.m. He was out Wednesday

and Thursday (I didn't see

any reason to try calling

on Tuesday), but on Friday

he told me that we'd need

a sample app. But prior to

that, Magnabilify requires

an NDA. Tuesday's meeting

should clarify things. Let me

know what you think.

Frank

Sarah—

Last week you asked me to

approach Magnabilify Corpora-

tion, the software developers,

to see whether they might have

any interest in our customizing

some security applications for

their computer systems. I ﬁ nally

got through to Jim Martinez,

corporate vice president in

charge of software, and we have

planned a face-to-face meeting

at his oﬃ ce next Tuesday.

The next steps, as I under-

stand them under Magnabilify's

protocol, will be to enter into

a nondisclosure agreement, to

develop a sample application

(in less than two weeks), and

to schedule a demonstration

shortly after.

Can you and I chat before

Tuesday's meeting?

Frank

The version on the left reads like stream-of-conscious-

ness. The writer didn't take the time to step back, think

of the message from the reader's perspective, and then

lay out the important points chronologically. A story,

even a short one like the narrative on the right, holds the

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Use chronology when giving a factual account

reader's interest more effectively than jumbled facts in-

terspersed with opinions.

Plot out what happened, and when

When a serious dispute arises within a company, the

lawyers will typically ask their clients to produce a "chro-

nology of relevant events," detailing the most important

incidents leading up to the dispute. This document helps

everyone involved think more clearly about how things

unfolded. Try taking a similar approach when writing

a document that walks the reader through a series of

events—whether you're sending someone a project up-

date or preparing an employee's performance evaluation.

Create a chronology of relevant events to organize the

narrative. Say you did that before drafting your e-mail

message to Sarah in the right-hand example. Here's how

it might look:

Chronology of relevant events

Last week Sarah asked me to gauge

Magnabilify's interest in having

us build customized security

applications.

Today I spoke with Jim Martinez.

Next Tuesday Jim and I will meet at his oﬃ ce

to discuss.

In two weeks If Magnabilify is interested, we'll

do an NDA, develop a sample

app, and schedule a demo.

Once you've laid out the chronology like this, drafting

the e-mail message becomes a lot easier—just a matter

of stringing the events together and asking to meet with

Sarah before next Tuesday's meeting.

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Developing Your Skills

Recap

• Include only the relevant facts.

• Provide them in chronological order to make it

easy for your readers to follow you.

• Organize your narrative by creating a chronology

of relevant events before you write; then string the

events together in your draft. But avoid the rote

recitation of unnecessary dates.

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Chapter 13

Be a stickler

for continuity

Smooth writing consists of a sequence of well-joined

sentences and paragraphs, not a mere collection of them.

This smooth sequencing requires good planning and skill

in handling transitions, or links that help readers follow

your train of thought.

Watch how a good writer on business ethics, Man-

uel G. Velasquez, does it with a series of paragraph open-

ers (the links are indicated here by italics):

A Series of Paragraph Openers from

Manuel G. Velasquez's Business Ethics (2011)

1. How well does a free monopoly market

succeed in achieving the moral values that

characterize perfectly competitive free mar-

kets? Not well.

2. The most obvious failure of monopoly mar-

kets lies in the high prices they enable the

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Developing Your Skills

monopolist to charge and the high proﬁ ts they

enable him to reap, a failure that violates capi-

talist justice.

3. A monopoly market also results in a decline

in the efﬁ ciency with which it allocates and

distributes goods.

4. First, the monopoly market allows resources to

be used in ways that will produce shortages of

those things buyers want and cause them to be

sold at higher prices than necessary.

5. Second, monopoly markets do not encourage

suppliers to use resources in ways that will

minimize the resources consumed to produce a

certain amount of a commodity.

6. Third, a monopoly market allows the seller to

introduce price differentials that block con-

sumers from putting together the most satisfy-

ing bundle of commodities they can purchase

given the commodities available and the

money they can spend.

7. Monopoly markets also embody restrictions on

the negative rights that perfectly free markets

respect.

8. A monopoly market, then, is one that deviates

from the ideals of capitalist justice, economic

utility, and negative rights.

The italicized transitional phrases steer us from one idea

to the next. Normally, we wouldn't even notice them. The

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Be a stickler for continuity

transitions in really good writing are almost subliminal—

but they're carefully placed where readers will need

them. These connections take readers forward in differ-

ent ways. They can:

• Establish a time sequence: then, at that point,

afterward, as soon as, at last, before, after, ﬁ rst,

initially, meanwhile, later, next, now, once, origi-

nally, since, then, until, ﬁ nally

• Establish place: there, in that place, at the front, in

back, farther back, in the rear, at the center, to the

left (right), up front, way back

• Add a point: and, or, further, also, in fact, more-

over, not only . . . but also

• Underscore a point: above all, after all, and so,

chieﬂ y, equally important, more so, indeed, more

important

• Concede a point: although, and yet, admittedly,

at the same time, certainly, even though, doubt-

less, granted, no doubt, of course, still, though, to be

sure, whereas, yet, while

• Return to a point: even so, nevertheless, nonethe-

less, still

• Give an example: for example, for instance, in

particular

• Provide a reason: because, hence, thus, for, it fol-

lows, since, so, then, therefore

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Developing Your Skills

• Set up a contrast: but, yet, and yet, conversely,

despite, by contrast, instead, on the other hand,

still, then, while

• Set up a conclusion: so, as a result, ﬁ nally, in con-

clusion, in short, in sum, on the whole, therefore,

thus, to sum up

Use subheads as transitions

No matter how smooth your transitions are between sen-

tences and paragraphs, time-pressed readers will zone

out if you place a solid wall of text in front of them. Break

up your documents (even e-mails that are longer than a

paragraph) with some signposts to lead people from sec-

tion to section and help them quickly locate the parts

they're particularly interested in. A "summary" subhead,

for example, tells readers where to ﬁ nd just the high-

lights. And subheads that concisely yet clearly lay out

your key points allow people to skim and still get the gist

of your message.

Make your subheads as consistent as you can. For in-

stance, if you're leading a task force that's recommend-

ing ways to forge direct customer relationships through

social media, you might write each subhead in your body

text as a directive, along these lines:

Use LinkedIn to Get Feedback on Current Products

Use Facebook to Test New Concepts

Use Twitter to Facilitate Chats About Live Events

The parallelism will help your document hang together

both rhetorically and logically.

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Be a stickler for continuity

Recap

• Use well-placed transitional phrases to guide the

reader to your next idea and indicate its relation-

ship to what came before.

• Break up documents with concise, descriptive

subheads to increase readability and help readers

quickly locate the information most important

to them.

• Use a "summary" subhead to point your readers to

the document's highlights.

• Use consistent style and parallel syntax in your

subheads to reinforce the document's logical and

rhetorical cohesion.

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Chapter 14

Learn the basics of

correct grammar

Why nitpick about grammar? Because readers may see

your language—especially your use of your native lan-

guage—as a reﬂ ection of your competence. Make lots of

mistakes and you'll come across as uneducated and unin-

formed. People will hesitate to trust your recommenda-

tion to launch a resource-intensive project, for example,

or to buy goods or services. They may think you don't

know what you're talking about.

Telltale indicators

Consider pronouns. If you don't know how to handle I

and me, many of your colleagues, partners, and custom-

ers won't take you seriously. Some errors will predictably

get you in trouble:

• "She placed an order *with Megan and I." (Correct :

She placed an order with Megan and me.)

• (On the phone:) "*This is him." (Correct: This is he.)

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Developing Your Skills

• "Just keep this matter *between you and I." (Cor-

rect: Just keep this matter between you and me.)

• "*Whom may I say is calling?" (Correct: Who

may I say is calling?)

The rule, very simply, is that I, we, he, and she are sub-

jects of clauses <Leslie and I were delighted to work with

you>; me, us, him, and her are objects of either verbs

or prepositions <Please call either Leslie or me> <You

might want to consult with Leslie and me>. In the com-

pound phrasings, try leaving out Leslie and—and you'll

know the correct form immediately.

Besides pronoun problems, here are the main types

of grammatical errors to watch out for. As for dozens of

other wording issues that can torpedo your credibility,

see Appendixes D and F.

Subject–verb disagreement

A verb must agree in person and number with its sub-

ject <You are aware of that> <Pat is

aware of that> <We are all aware of that>. But syntax can

make things tricky.

There is poses a problem because There appears to be

the subject. It's not. It's what grammarians call an exple-

tive—not a bad-word expletive (as in "expletive deleted"),

but a word that stands in for the subject in an inverted

sentence. In these sentences, there is just means "exists."

Take, for example, There is a vacancy on the hiring com-

mittee. The uninverted sentence would be A vacancy

(exists) on the hiring committee. Because there seems to

some people to resemble a singular subject, they tend to

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Learn the basics of correct grammar

use a singular verb. But there inverts the word order, and

the true subject follows the verb <There are several rea-

sons for approving the plan>. And, of course, when the

subject is plural, a plural verb is needed.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

There is always risk and

liability considerations to

take into account.

There are always risk and liabil-

ity considerations to take into

account.

There is many options to

avoid a takeover.

There are many options to avoid a

takeover.

Another troublesome area for subject–verb disagree-

ment involves prepositional phrases that follow the sub-

ject. By "false attraction," they often mislead writers to

choose the wrong verb (singular for plural or vice versa).

The object of a prepositional phrase is never the subject

of a sentence. It may be nearer the verb, but the number

of the subject controls the number of the verb:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

The details of the custom-

ized work is delaying the

project.

The details of the customized

work are delaying the project.

The source of our replace-

ment parts and main-

tenance have not been

selected yet.

The source for our replacement

parts and maintenance supplies

has not been selected yet.

In the ﬁ rst example, work is the object of the preposition

of, so the plural subject details controls the verb. In the

second, source takes the singular has not been selected.

Disagreements can also arise with compound subjects

connected by or, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor. If the sub-

jects are all singular then the verb is singular as well. But

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Developing Your Skills

when one or more are plural, the number of the verb must

match the number of the noun that follows the or or nor:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Special services or a new

product target a niche

market.

Special services or a new prod-

uct targets a niche market.

Neither the education fund

nor the training costs is

without budget constraints.

Neither the education fund nor

the training costs are without

budget constraints.

In the ﬁ rst example, the singular subject a new product

after the or mandates a singular verb. In the second ex-

ample, the plural subject after nor makes the verb plural

as well. Notice that it's more idiomatic to use the singular

subject or plural subject + plural verb form.

Noun–pronoun disagreement

Strictly speaking, a pronoun must have the same gender

and number as the subject.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

A shareholder may cast their

vote for only one member of

the board.

A shareholder may cast his or

her vote for only one member of

the board.

Although their is colloquially used as a genderless sin-

gular pronoun, this usage is not yet widely accepted in

formal writing. And unless you know the sex of the sub-

ject, try to avoid using a masculine or feminine pronoun.

If you wish to make a political statement with pronoun

gender (by always choosing the generic feminine, for ex-

ample), do so: Just know that some of your readers may

be distracted by it or may discount your credibility. The

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Learn the basics of correct grammar

safest course is to use some ingenuity to write in an invis-

ibly gender-neutral way.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Either the receptionist or

the sales assistant will have

to change their lunch hour

so that at least one will be

in the oﬃ ce at all times.

Either the receptionist or the

sales assistant will have to start

taking lunch earlier or later so

that at least one will be in the

oﬃ ce at all times.

Three candidates responded

to the advertisement for the

ﬁ nancial-oﬃ cer position.

Each submitted their

résumé.

Three candidates responded

to the advertisement for the

ﬁ nancial-oﬃ cer position. Each

submitted a résumé.

But back to grammar. When the subject of a sentence

is a singular pronoun such as either, neither, each, or ev-

ery, other nouns that accompany it have no effect on the

number of the verb:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Have either of our clients

arrived yet?

Has either of our clients ar-

rived yet?

Neither of the new products

have sold spectacularly this

year.

Neither of the new products

has sold spectacularly this

year.

Each of us are responsible

for the tasks assigned.

Each of us is responsible for

the tasks assigned.

Double negatives

A double negative occurs when back-to-back negatives

are meant to intensify, not cancel, each other. It's easy

to recognize in dialect (for example, we didn't have no

choice or it didn't hardly matter), but the problems can

be more subtle in formal writing. Watch for the word not

plus another word with a negative sense.

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Developing Your Skills

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

We couldn't scarcely manage

to keep up with the demand.

We could scarcely manage to

keep up with the demand.

Another subtle double-negative combination is not

. . . but.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

The clerk couldn't help but call

the manager for advice.

The clerk couldn't help calling

the manager for advice.

But indicates a negative or contradiction, so not . . . but

may be ambiguous. The ﬁ rst sentence could mean the

clerk had some other option. The second sentence clearly

states there was no alternative.

Nonstandard vocabulary

In business writing, always use standard English—unless

you're writing speciﬁ cally for a niche audience of non-

standard speakers. Broadly speaking, standard English

is characterized by attention to accepted conventions for

grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation.

You needn't always be strictly formal—in appropriate

situations, use less formal English. But your prose and

speech must always be professional and respectful.

Dialect is always nonstandard. Avoid using it in

business:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Where's the meeting at? Where's the meeting?

Me and Kim will handle the

Brewster account.

Kim and I will handle the Brews-

ter account.

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Learn the basics of correct grammar

Nonstandard language may also creep in when writers

rely on the spoken sounds of words:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

They shouldn't of submitted

those incomplete reports.

They shouldn't have submitted

those incomplete reports.

Irregular verbs are also fertile ground for nonstandard

language.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

We drug our heels getting

into the mid-Atlantic market.

We dragged our heels getting

into the mid-Atlantic market.

Our late entry almost sunk

our chances against

established competitors.

Our late entry almost sank our

chances against established

competitors.

How to correct yourself

Here are three good ways to brush up: (1) Read ﬁ rst-rate

nonﬁ ction; (2) have knowledgeable colleagues proof your

material and explain their corrections; and (3) browse

through guides on grammar and usage, consulting them

whenever questions arise.

This last method will help you distinguish between the

real rules and the artiﬁ cial ones that plague so much writ-

ing. For example, were you told in school never to begin

a sentence with a conjunction? So was I. But look at all

the ands and buts that begin sentences in ﬁ rst-rate prose.

They're everywhere. These words, as sentence-starters,

keep readers going smoothly with the train of thought.

They don't break any real rules—and they never have.

Grammatically, there's nothing wrong with using

additionally and however as sentence-starters. But

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Developing Your Skills

stylistically, they're inferior. The multisyllable connectors

don't join as cleanly and as tightly as monosyllables do.

Do you worry that your readers will think a sentence-

starting conjunction is wrong? They won't even notice it,

just as you never do. Good style gets readers focused on

your clear, concise message. Bad style, by contrast, draws

attention to itself.

For a handy collection of grammar guidelines, see Ap-

pendix B, "A Dozen Grammatical Rules You Absolutely

Need to Know." And be sure to spend some quality time

with Appendix F, "A Primer of Good Usage." Fall in love

with the language, and it will love you back.

Recap

• When considering verb number, watch for com-

pound subjects, inverted syntax, and prepositional

phrases that follow the subject.

• Never mistake the object of a preposition for the

subject of a sentence.

• Avoid using they/them/their as genderless singular

pronouns in formal writing.

• Avoid double negatives.

• Follow the conventions of standard English.

• Improve your grasp of standard English by read-

ing quality nonﬁ ction, having colleagues review

your writing, and referring to grammar and usage

guides when you have questions.

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Chapter 15

Get feedback

on your drafts

from colleagues

Say you've drafted a budget request. Ask people on your

team to read it and make sure you've explained clearly,

concisely, and persuasively why you should receive the

funding, for example, to hire two more staff members.

And if possible, get constructive feedback from an objec-

tive peer in a different department—preferably someone

who is good at lobbying for resources.

Pay attention to what your colleagues say: Their re-

actions will probably be quite close to those of your in-

tended readers.

Accept suggestions graciously

A good writer welcomes good edits—yearns for them, in

fact. A bad writer resents them, seeing them only as per-

sonal attacks. A good writer has many ideas and tends

to value them cheaply. A bad writer has few ideas and

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Developing Your Skills

values them too dearly. So share your material while it's

still rough—the feedback will help you make it shipshape

much faster than if you were toiling in isolation.

Try to avoid having your colleagues explain their edits

in person. You may get defensive and have a hard time

recognizing good advice. Invite them to mark up your

document, and thank them for their help.

If you have the people you supervise tightening and

brightening your prose regularly, you'll beneﬁ t in two

ways: Your documents will be more polished, and the

people you manage will, with practice, become better ed-

itors and writers. Give them direction, though: Ask them

to look not just for outright errors but also for passages

that are verbose, unclear, or awkwardly expressed. Ide-

ally, you'll get to the point where you're accepting 80 per-

cent of their suggestions.

Create a culture where editing ﬂ ourishes

At my company, everyone who edits or proofreads must

suggest at least two changes per page. No one is allowed

to hand something back—even a short letter—and say,

"It looks good to me!" People can always make improve-

ments by asking, "What did the writer not say that should

have been said? How could the tone be improved? Isn't

there a better, shorter way of phrasing one of the ideas?"

And so on.

If each reader suggests at least two edits per page, your

typos will get caught—believe me. Typos are generally the

easiest things to catch, so readers will usually mark those

before trying the more difﬁ cult task of suggesting stylis-

tic improvements. In the end, awkwardness will disap-

pear. You and your team will look better because you'll

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Get feedback on your drafts from colleagues

perform better. You'll make stronger, clearer arguments.

You'll put together more persuasive pitches.

Does this seem like overkill? Consider that every com-

munication you send is a commentary on your team or

company and its level of professionalism. If it's a printed

brochure or a commercial e-mail with wide distribution,

the more feedback the better. You simply cannot have too

many sets of knowledgeable eyes review the copy.

A dumb mistake can be disastrous—as a major univer-

sity discovered after printing thousands of commence-

ment brochures with "School of Pubic Affairs" in large

type on the front cover. A photo of this embarrassing gaffe

almost instantly popped up on the Internet, of course,

and the university became the target of many jokes.

When it comes to writing, you want a culture of un-

neurotic helpfulness. There's no shame in needing edits

from others. People should freely seek them and freely

give them—without any unpleasant overtones of one-

upmanship. Everyone in an organization, regardless of

rank, can beneﬁ t from good editing.

Recap

• Routinely ask your colleagues and those you su-

pervise to read your drafts and suggest edits.

• Have them mark up the document and submit

their edits in writing, rather than explaining them

in person, to avoid reacting defensively. Always

thank them for their help.

• Foster an environment where edits are freely

sought and offered—without overtones of petty

one-upmanship.

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H6082.indb 88 H6082.indb 88 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Section 3

Avoiding

the Quirks

That Turn

Readers Oﬀ

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Chapter 16

Don't anesthetize

your readers

It seems obvious that you shouldn't put your audience

to sleep, doesn't it? It should also be obvious to people

who talk in circles at dinner parties or deliver dull lec-

tures, but consider how many boring speakers you've had

to listen to. It doesn't have to be that way—whether in

conversation or in writing.

Ponder the best conversationalists and the best lec-

turers you've ever heard. No matter how obscure the topic,

they make it fascinating through their technique. They

avoid trite expressions. They use strong, simple words.

Think of Winston Churchill's famous phrase "blood, toil,

tears, and sweat." And remember what George Wash-

ington reputedly said when questioned about the fallen

cherry tree: not "It was accomplished by utilizing a small

sharp-edged implement," but "I used my little hatchet."

Effective writers use the same techniques. Why do you

read some books all the way through but set others aside?

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Avoiding the Quirks That Turn Readers Oﬀ

It's their style: the way they explain things, the way they

tell the story.

Here are several tips for writing business documents

that hold readers' attention.

Use personal pronouns skillfully

Don't overuse I (try not to begin paragraphs or successive

sentences with it), but do lean heavily on we, our, you,

and your. Those are personal, friendly words that add

human interest and pull readers into a document. Rudolf

Flesch, a leading ﬁ gure in plain-English circles and the

author of How to Be Brief, was one of the ﬁ rst to explain

the need for you:

Keep a running conversation with your reader. Use the

second-person pronoun whenever you can. Translate

everything into you language. This applies to citizens

over 65 = if you're over 65, this applies to you. It must

be remembered that = you must remember. Many

people don't realize = perhaps you don't realize. Always

write directly to you, the person you're trying to reach

with your message.

Likewise, the words we and our —in reference to your

ﬁ rm or company—make corporations and other legal

entities sound as if they have collective personalities (as

they should and typically do). People usually appreciate

this down-to-earth approach over the sterile, distanc-

ing effect of third-person prose. Compare the following

examples:

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Don't anesthetize your readers

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Whether or not a stockholder

plans to attend a meeting, he

or she should take the time to

vote by completing and mailing

the enclosed proxy card to the

Company. If a stockholder signs,

dates, and mails a proxy card

without indicating how he or she

wants to vote, that stock holder's

proxy will be counted as a vote

in favor of the merger. If a stock-

holder fails to return a proxy

card, the eﬀ ect in most cases will

be a vote against the merger.

Whether or not you plan to

attend a meeting, please

take the time to vote by

completing and mailing the

enclosed proxy card to us.

If you sign, date, and mail

your proxy card without

indicating how you want to

vote, your proxy will count

as a vote in favor of the

merger. If you don't return

your card, in most cases

you'll be counted as voting

against the merger.

Use contractions

Many writers have a morbid fear of contractions, having

been taught in school to avoid them. But you won't be

breaking any real rules if you use them—and they coun-

teract stufﬁ ness, a major cause of poor writing.

This doesn't mean that you should become breezy or

use much slang—just that it's good to be relaxed. If you

would say something as a contraction, then write it that

way. If you wouldn't, then don't.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

For those customers who do

not participate in West Bank's

online banking program, and do

not wish to consider doing so,

West Bank will continue sending

them statements by U.S. Mail.

If you prefer not to use our

online banking program,

we'll continue mailing your

statements to you.

We would like to remind you

that it is not necessary to be

present to win. We will inform

all winners by telephone subse-

quent to the drawing.

Remember: You needn't be

present to win the drawing.

We'll call you if you win.

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Avoiding the Quirks That Turn Readers Oﬀ

Stick to simple language

I know I repeat this again and again—but it bears repeat-

ing. Readers who can't follow you will stop trying.

Avoid passive voice

Don't say "The closing documents were prepared by Sue,"

but instead "Sue prepared the closing documents"; not

"The message was sent by George," but either "George

sent the message" or "The message came from George."

This guideline is hardly absolute—sometimes passive

voice is the most natural way to say what you're saying.

Sometimes it can't be avoided. (See?) But if you develop

a strong habit of using active voice, you'll largely pre-

vent convoluted, backward-sounding sentences in your

writing.

How do you identify passive voice? Remember that

it's invariably a be-verb (typically is, are, was, were ) or

get, plus a past-tense verb. There are eight be-verbs and

countless past participles.

Examples of Passive Voice

is + delivered

are + ﬁ nished

was + awarded

were + praised

been + adjusted

being + ﬂ own

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Don't anesthetize your readers

be + served

am + relieved

got + promoted

You will improve your writing if you minimize passive

voice. (Not: Your writing will be improved if passive voice

is minimized by you.)

Vary the length and structure of your

sentences

Monotony, as Cicero once said, is in all things the mother

of boredom. It's true of syntax no less than it's true of eat-

ing or anything else. Sameness cloys. So you want short

sentences and long; main clauses and subordinate ones.

You want variety.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Over a signiﬁ cant period

of time, we have gained

experience helping our

clients improve operational

performance and maximize

both the eﬃ ciency of their

human resources and the

economical utilization of their

capital. Ours is an integrated

approach that both diagnoses

and streamlines operating

practices and procedures

using lean maintenance and

optimization tools, while at

the same time implementing

change-management tech-

niques involving mind-sets

and behaviors of those in-

volved in managerial positions

within a given organization.

For many years, we have

helped clients better use their

resources and improve per-

formance. How? By streamlin-

ing operations and changing

managers' mind-sets and

behaviors.

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Avoiding the Quirks That Turn Readers Oﬀ

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

In order to provide you, the

user of our products, the op-

tion of obtaining free replace-

ments for defective products

from the nearest oﬃ ce, we

oﬀ er a simpliﬁ ed processing

without acknowledgment of

the statutory duty ("goodwill")

regardless of whether the

product has been purchased

there or has reached the user

by another route.

What should you do if you

need a free replacement for a

defective product? Go to the

nearest oﬃ ce. Any of our of-

ﬁ ces can help even if you did

not purchase the item there.

Avoid alphabet soup

Readers ﬁ nd acronyms tiresome, especially ones they're

not familiar with. So use them judiciously. It might be

convenient to refer to COGS instead of spelling out "cost

of goods sold." If you also throw in acronyms such as ABC

("activity-based costing"), EBITDA ("earnings before in-

terest, tax, depreciation, and amortization"), and VBM

("value-based management"), the accountants in your

audience will follow you—but you'll lose everyone else.

Small wonder, too. People don't want to master your ar-

cane vocabulary to get what you're saying.

Surely you've had this experience as a reader: You

encounter an acronym (a long one if you're particularly

unlucky) and can't connect it with anything you've read

in the article or document so far. You ﬁ nd yourself scan-

ning backward through the text, hoping to ﬁ nd the ﬁ rst

appearance of that acronym or words that might ﬁ t it.

By the time you ﬁ nd it (or give up trying), you've com-

pletely lost the writer's train of thought. Never put your

own readers through that.

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Don't anesthetize your readers

Stick to words when you can. Acronyms make writing

easier but reading harder. Your shortcut is the reader's

hindrance.

Recap

• Don't overuse I. Use we, our, you, and your instead

to add a personal touch and appeal to your reader.

• Avoid stufﬁ ness by overcoming any fear you might

have of contractions.

• For clearer, more straightforward writing, prefer

active voice—unless the passive in a particular

context sounds more natural.

• Vary the length and structure of your sentences.

• Make the reader's job easier by avoiding acronyms

when you can.

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Chapter 17

Watch your tone

Striking the right tone takes work—but it's critical to the

success of your business documents. If you sound likable

and professional, people will want to work with you and

respond to you. So adopt a relaxed tone, as if speaking

directly to the recipient of your document.

Avoid hyperformality

What do you think of colleagues who say or write "How

may I be of assistance?" instead of "How may I help

you?" Or "subsequent to our conversation" instead of "af-

ter we spoke"? When they choose overblown words over

everyday equivalents, don't they strike you as pompous?

Too much formality will spoil your style. Keep your

writing down to earth and achieve a personal touch by:

• Writing your message more or less as you'd say it,

but without all the casualisms (likes and you knows).

• Including courtesies such as thank you, we're

happy to, and we appreciate .

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Avoiding the Quirks That Turn Readers Oﬀ

100

• Using the names of the people you're writing about

(David Green, not the above-mentioned patient).

• Using personal pronouns (you, he, she—not the

reader, the decedent, the applicant; we under-

stand—not it is understood; we recommend —not

it is recommended by the undersigned).

Be collegial

You'll have better luck delivering most kinds of mes-

sages, even tough ones, if you approach people colle-

gially. Imagine that everything you write will be paraded

before a jury in a contentious lawsuit. You'll want that

jury to think you've behaved admirably. Of course, some-

times you'll need to take an aggressive stance—for ex-

ample, when you're at the last stage before litigation. But

do this only as a last resort, and preferably on advice of

counsel.

Be yourself. Just be your most careful, circumspect self.

People have gotten their companies into terrible trou-

ble—and have lost their jobs—by writing ill- considered

letters, memos, and e-mails. So always summon your

best judgment.

Even if you're collegial and fairly relaxed, your lan-

guage will vary somewhat depending on your relation-

ship with the recipient. You'll be okay if you ask yourself,

"How would I say this to so-and-so if he were right here

with me?" You don't want a distant tone with your clos-

est colleagues, and you don't want a chummy tone with

someone you don't know all that well.

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Watch your tone

101

Never try to make your readers admit that they're in

the wrong. It's unwise to say that they labor under a de-

lusion, or claim to understand, or fail to understand, or

complain, or erroneously assert, or distort. These expres-

sions, and others like them, breed ill will. Instead, treat

your readers with integrity and fairness—and show your

willingness to meet them halfway.

Drop the sarcasm

Sarcasm expresses contempt and superiority. It doesn't

shame people into compliance. Rather, it's a sureﬁ re way

of irritating and alienating them. Compare:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Given that Monday was a

bank holiday, as declared

by federal statute no less,

your e-mail of the 17th

of the present month did

not come to my attention

until yesterday. It is with no

small degree of regret that

we note that you deemed

it necessary to send a

follow- up e-mail to us

regarding this matter, since

we are desirous of estab-

lishing a relationship of

mutual trust and respect.

Because Monday was a bank

holiday, I didn't receive your

e-mail message of the 17th

until yesterday. Naturally I was

chagrined that you had to write

a second time. But of course I

want you to call on me when-

ever I might help.

In the left-hand column, note the deadly combination

of hyperformality and sarcasm, and the annoying sub-

text: "You wrote on a holiday, you DOPE. Of course you

had to wait for a response." The chance of "establishing

a relationship of mutual trust and respect" is very likely

diminished.

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Avoiding the Quirks That Turn Readers Oﬀ

102

Recap

• Arrive at a relaxed but professional tone by writing

your message as if you were speaking to the recipi-

ent in person.

• Refer to people by name, use personal pronouns

as you naturally would, and shun fancy substitutes

for everyday words.

• Always use your best judgment and a collegial tone

in composing your messages, even if the content

isn't positive. You'll get better responses from your

recipients and keep yourself—and your company—

out of trouble.

• Adopt a tone appropriate to your relationship with

the recipient.

• Never use sarcasm in professional messages. It

will result in a step away from—not toward—your

desired outcome.

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Section 4

Common Forms

of Business

Writing

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105

Chapter 18

E-mails

When you send e-mails, do you usually receive a useful,

friendly, timely response? Or one that falls short of that

ideal? Or no response at all? If you're struggling to get

your recipients to focus on your messages, it's because

you're competing with a lot of senders—in some cases,

hundreds per day.

Here's how to write e-mails that people will actually

read, answer, and act on:

• Get straight to the point—politely, of course—in

your ﬁ rst few sentences. Be direct when making

a request. Don't fulsomely butter up the recipi-

ent ﬁ rst—although a brief compliment may help

("Great interview. Thanks for sending it. May I ask

a favor?"). Spell out deadlines and other details the

recipient will need to get the job done right and

on time.

• Copy people judiciously. Include only those who

will immediately grasp why they're on the thread.

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Common Forms of Business Writing

106

And avoid "Reply All." Your correspondent may

have been overinclusive with the "Copy" list, and if

you repeat that mistake, you'll continue to annoy

the recipients who shouldn't be there.

• Keep your message brief. People ﬁ nd long e-mails

irksome and energy-sapping. The more they have

to scroll or swipe, the less receptive they'll be to

your message. They'll probably just skim it and

miss important details. Many people immediately

close long e-mails to read the shorter ones. So

rarely compose more than a single screen of read-

ing. Focus your content and tighten your language.

• Write a short but informative subject line. With a

generic—or blank—subject line, your message will

get buried in your recipient's overstuffed inbox.

(Not "Program," but "The Nov. 15 Leadership

Program.") If you're asking someone to take action,

highlight that in the subject line. By making your

request easy to ﬁ nd, you'll improve your chances of

getting it fulﬁ lled.

• Stick to standard capitalization and punctuation.

Good writing conventions may seem like a waste

of time for e-mail, especially when you're tapping

out messages on a handheld device. But it's a mat-

ter of getting things right—the little things. Even

if people in your group don't capitalize or punctu-

ate in their messages, stand out as someone who

does. Rushed e-mails that violate the basic norms

of written language bespeak carelessness. And

their abbreviated style can be confusing. It takes

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E-mails

107

less time to write a clear message the ﬁ rst time

around than it does to follow up to explain what

you meant to say.

• Use a signature that displays your title and contact

information. It should look professional (not too

long or ornate) and make it convenient for others

to choose how to reach you.

These tips are pretty commonsensical—but they're not

common practice. To show you how well they work, let's

compare some sample e-mails.

Say you're trying to help a young friend of yours, a

budding journalist, land an internship. You happen to

know the editor of a metropolitan newspaper, and you

send him a message. Consider these two approaches:

NOT THIS:

Subject: Hello there!

Hal—

It's been ages, I know, but I've been meaning to tell you

just how eﬀ ective I think you've been as the editor of the Daily

Metropolitan these past seven years. Although I canceled my

subscription a few years back (LOL)—the papers kept cluttering

the driveway—I buy a copy at the coﬀ ee shop almost every day,

and I always tell people there just how good the paper is. Who

knows, I may have won you some subscribers with all my gush-

ing praise! Believe me, I'm always touting the good old DM.

Anyhoo, I have a mentee I'd like you to meet. You'll soon be

thanking me for introducing you to her. She would like an intern-

ship, and I know she'll be the best intern you've ever had. Her

name is Glenda Jones, and she is A-1 in every way. May I tell her

you will contact her? (With good news, I hope!) It can be unpaid.

I know your paper has fallen on tough times—but she wants to

get into the business anyway! Silly girl. Ah, well, what can you

do when journalism seems like it's just in the blood?

Expectantly yours,

Myra

P.S. You'll thank me for this!

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Common Forms of Business Writing

108

BUT THIS:

Subject: Request for an Interview

Hal—

May I ask a favor of you? Glenda Jones, a really sharp mentee

in the township's Young Leaders program, wants to pursue a

career in journalism, and she's eager to learn how commercial

news organizations work. Would you spend 15 minutes chat-

ting with her at your oﬃ ce sometime this month, before school

lets out? I know it would be a meaningful introduction for her.

You'll ﬁ nd that she is a poised, mature, smart, and incredibly

self-possessed young woman.

She tells me that she's looking for an unpaid internship.

After a brief interview, perhaps you'd consider giving her a

one-week tryout as your assistant. I know you've been a mentor

to many aspiring journalists over the years, but here you have a

real standout: editor of her college newspaper, Phi Beta Kappa

member, state debate champion.

No pressure here. If it's a bad summer for you to take on an

intern, I'll completely understand. But please meet with her if

you can. I've asked her to write to you independently, enclosing

her résumé, to give you a sense of her writing skills.

Thanks very much. Hope you and your family are doing well.

Myra

The ﬁ rst version is colossally ineffective—and if Glenda

gets an internship it will be very much despite the mes-

sage from her mentor. The writer is inconsiderate (sug-

gesting that journalism is a thankless career), insensitive

(confessing to having canceled her subscription), and

horribly presumptuous (acting as if the recipient owes

her for "always touting" the newspaper and for suggest-

ing this "A-1" intern—as well as assuming that Glenda

must get the job).

The second version is effective because it's humble,

you-centered, considerate ("No pressure here"), and

mildly ﬂ attering ("I know you've been a mentor to many").

Though it's a little longer than the ﬁ rst one, it gets to the

point sooner, and it provides only helpful information. If

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E-mails

109

Glenda has any real potential, she stands a decent chance

of getting that interview and possibly landing an intern-

ship with this version.

You may occasionally need to reprimand someone in

an e-mail—to clearly explain a misstep, to make a record

of it, or both. Compare these two examples, which show

the right and wrong way to deal with an employee who

sent an offensive e-mail to the whole team:

NOT THIS:

Subject: You Are in Trouble

Ted—

What on earth were you thinking when you sent that "joke"?

Your coworkers sure didn't appreciate it one bit, and neither

did I. Don't tell me it was "just a joke." Haven't you cracked your

employee handbook and read our company's policies? You've

never done this before, that I am aware of. Don't ever send an

e-mail like this one again.

Bill Morton

Oﬃ ce Manager

BUT THIS:

Subject: Disruption Caused by Your E-mail

Ted—

What one person considers funny, another may ﬁ nd oﬀ ensive

and insulting. Several people have complained to me about the

e-mail headed "Have You Heard This One" that you sent every-

one yesterday. I was as upset as they were by the foul language,

which is inappropriate for an e-mail sent at work. Our compa-

ny's policy does not make an exception for oﬀ ensive language,

even when used in jest. Please think about how future e-mails

will aﬀ ect your coworkers. If I receive complaints again, HR will

have to get involved. But I trust that won't be necessary.

Bill

In the ﬁ rst version, the writer's anger is clear—and that's

about all that's clear. Ted will certainly feel stupid ("What

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Common Forms of Business Writing

110

on earth were you thinking" and "Haven't you cracked

your employee handbook") and scared ("Don't ever"). But

the writer doesn't detail what Ted did wrong and why.

And Ted isn't likely to ask ("Don't tell me it was 'just a

joke'").

The tone of the second version won't immediately put

the recipient on the defensive. This time, the writer ex-

plicitly identiﬁ es the source of the problem ("the e-mail

headed 'Have You Heard This One' that you sent every-

one yesterday") and explains the effects, the policy vio-

lated, and the consequences. Ted is much more likely to

understand his mistake.

Recap

• Be as direct as possible while maintaining a polite

tone. Come to the point of your e-mail within the

ﬁ rst two or three sentences.

• Never click "Reply All" without ﬁ rst checking the

recipient list. Send your e-mail only to people who

need to know its contents.

• Keep e-mails brief. Restrict yourself to one screen's

worth of text and keep the message tight and fo-

cused so your readers get the point fast.

• Write a concise subject line that tells your re-

cipients why you're writing and what it means to

them. If they need to act on your message, make

that clear in the subject line.

• Diligently adhere to standard writing conven-

tions—even when typing with your thumbs on a

handheld device.

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111

Chapter 19

Business Letters

Business letters aren't a quaint thing of the past. They're

necessary in all sorts of situations—from correcting a

vendor's error to recommending a job candidate to an-

nouncing a new service. Effective ones can increase your

proﬁ tability—by getting key customers to renew large

orders, for example, or persuading service providers to

charge you less for repeat business. They can also create

goodwill, which may eventually yield ﬁ nancial returns.

The pointers in this chapter will help you get those

kinds of results.

Use direct, personal language

You see canned phrases like enclosed please ﬁ nd and as

per all the time in letters. They're high-sounding but low-

performing. Your letters will be much clearer and more

engaging without them.

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Common Forms of Business Writing

112

TIPS FOR WRITING CLEAR, PERSUASIVE LETTERS

• Focus on the reader. Try not to begin with the

word I; make it you, if possible ("You were so

kind to . . . ," "You might be interested . . . ,"

etc.). Keep your recipient in the forefront

because—let's face it—that's what will hold the

reader's interest. Not: "I just thought I'd drop

you a note to say that I really enjoyed my time

as your guest last week." But instead: "What a

wonderful host you were last week."

• Say something that matters. Make your mes-

sage pointed but substantive—not just airy ﬁ ller.

Not: "I trust this ﬁ nds you prospering in busi-

ness, thriving in your personal life, and continu-

ing to seek the wisdom that will bring lasting

satisfaction in all your dealings." But instead:

"I hope you and your family and friends all

dodged the ﬁ res last week in Maniton Springs—

which sounded devastating."

• Avoid hedging and equivocating. Not: "It is

with regret that we acknowledge that we do not

appear at this time to be in a position to extend

an oﬀ er of employment." But instead: "We're

sorry to say that we aren't now hiring."

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Business Letters

113

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Enclosed please ﬁ nd . . . Here are . . .; Enclosed are . . .

As per your request . . . As you requested . . .

We are in receipt of . . . We've received . . .

We shall advise you . . . We'll let you know . . .

As per your letter . . . As your letter notes . . .

We have your order and will

transmit same . . .

We'll forward your order

promptly . . .

We take pleasure . . . We're glad . . .

Due to the fact that . . . Because . . .

At an early date . . . Soon . . .

In respect of the matter of . . . Regarding . . .

People often overwrite their letters—studding their

language with stiff, wordy expressions—when they're un-

comfortable with the message. Consider the difference

between the two examples that follow. The ﬁ rst letter is a

greeting to customers from a hotel manager; the second

is my revision.

NOT THIS:

Dear Valued Guest:

Welcome to the Milford Hotel Santa Clara. We are delighted

that you have selected our hotel during the time when you will

be here in the Silicon Valley area. Our staﬀ is ready to assist you

in any way and ensure that your stay here is an enjoyable and

excellent one in every way.

During your time here at the Milford Hotel Santa Clara, we

would like to inform you that the hotel is installing new toilet

facilities in all guest rooms. This project will begin on Tuesday,

May 8 until Tuesday, May 29. The project engineers will begin

at 9:00 a.m. and conclude for the day at 5:30 p.m. The team

of associates will begin work on the 14th ﬂ oor and will work in

descending order until completion. During these hours, you

may see the new or old toilets in the guest room corridors dur-

ing the exchange process, and we will ensure that a high level

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Common Forms of Business Writing

114

of cleanliness standards will be upheld. We think you'll soon

appreciate fresh toilet seats. Should you be in your guest room

during the toilet exchange and/or wish not to be disturbed, we

recommend that you please utilize your Do Not Disturb sign by

placing it on the handle of your guest room door.

The vending area should remain sanitary, so feel free to have

a candy bar or beverage of your preference. For your conve-

nience, there are safes located in the bottom nightstand drawer

in your guest room to safely store your valuables. There may

also be available to you utilization of our safe deposit boxes

located at the Front Desk.

We appreciate your cooperation and understanding while

we continue to improve the delivery system and appearance of

our guest room product. Our goal is to minimize any inconve-

nience related to the toilet-exchange project. Please contact our

Manager on Duty should you have any questions or concerns.

Once again, please be assured of our utmost devotion to the

total quality of your stay within the conﬁ nes of the Milford Hotel

Santa Clara. On behalf of myself and all the other management

personnel and staﬀ of employees here, we wish to reiterate our

thanks for your selection and conﬁ dence that each and every

factor of your stay here will be more than satisfactory.

Sincerely,

[386 words]

BUT THIS:

Dear Valued Guest:

Welcome to the Milford Hotel Santa Clara. We're delighted

you're staying here, and we're ready to help make your stay both

enjoyable and productive.

This month, we're renovating the bathrooms, starting with

the 14th ﬂ oor and working our way down. Although you may

have occasion to see or hear workers (during the day), we're

striving to minimize disruptions.

Always feel free to use your "Do Not Disturb" sign while you're

in your room to ensure that our staﬀ will respect your privacy.

And if the renovations ever become a nuisance, please call me

(extension 4505): I'll see what I can do. The renovations are but

one example of our commitment to providing ﬁ rst-rate lodging.

Thank you again for joining us.

Sincerely,

[125 words]

The original is verbose ( guest room product), perversely

repetitious (the word toilet appears ﬁ ve times), hyper-

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Business Letters

115

bolic (excellent . . . in every way ), bureaucratic-sounding

(there may also be available to you utilization ), unpleas-

antly vivid (you may see the new or old toilets ), and even

gross (have a candy bar right after you may see the new

or old toilets). It seems destined to arouse ill-feeling and

to drive away customers who bother to read it. The re-

vised version, by contrast, conveys warmth and consider-

ation with its "you" focus.

Start fast, and say what you need to say in the sim-

plest way you can. Think of Olympic diving: neatly in, no

splash, soon out. And if you're writing on behalf of your

ﬁ rm, use we. It's much warmer and friendlier than the

passive voice (It has been decided vs. We have decided) or

the impersonal third person (this organization vs. we).

Consider the difference:

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

The Mercantile Association

of Greater Gotham is delighted

to count you among its newest

members. The Mercantile As-

sociation will provide not only

networking opportunities but

also advantageous insurance

rates, concierge services,

and Internet advertising to its

members. If you ever confront

business issues with which

the Mercantile Association

might be able to devote its

resources, it stands ready to

be of assistance.

Here at the Mercantile As-

sociation of Greater Gotham,

we're delighted to count you

among our newest members.

We provide not only network-

ing opportunities but also

advantageous insurance

rates, concierge services, and

Internet advertising. If you

ever confront business issues

we can help with, we'll do

whatever we can. Just let us

know.

In the left-hand example, passive voice (is delighted )

and repetition of the organization's name (it appears

in every sentence) put distance between the writer and

the reader. They make the communication sound like a

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Common Forms of Business Writing

116

commercial or promotion. But the yous and we s in the

version on the right create a sense of belonging, a personal

connection.

Motivate readers to act

Business letters get results when they meet readers'

needs. To get people to do something, give them reasons

they'll care about.

Consider one of the most challenging kinds of letters

to write: a fund-raising appeal for a nonproﬁ t group. The

key is to understand why people give money to charitable

organizations. Although marketers often cite seven "fun-

damental motivators" to explain responses—fear, guilt,

exclusivity, greed, anger, salvation, and ﬂ attery—the re-

ality is a bit more nuanced. Some combination of eight

major reasons might motivate donors to send money in

response to your appeal:

• They believe their gifts will make a difference.

• They believe in the value of organizations like

yours.

• They will receive favorable recognition for the gift.

• They will be associated with a famous or respected

person.

• They will enhance their sense of belonging to a

worthy group.

• They will be able to relieve emotional burdens

such as fear and guilt.

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Business Letters

117

• They feel a sense of duty.

• They will receive tax beneﬁ ts.

Certain principles follow from these reasons for giving.

A successful fund-raising letter must (1) appeal directly

from one person to another; (2) depict an opportunity

for the recipient to satisfy personal needs by supporting

a worthwhile aim; and (3) prompt the recipient to take a

speciﬁ c, decisive action. (These principles apply to other

types of business letters as well.)

Note how all this theory plays out in an actual fund-

raising letter:

Dear Marion:

May I count you in as a table sponsor at the Annual

Dinner of the Tascosa Children's Home of North Texas?

Your sponsorship will pay a month's room and board for

one of the 50 orphaned teenagers that we care for.

The event will be held at 6:00 p.m. on July 1 at

Snowdon Country Club, and the emcee will be the

nationally syndicated television host Spooner Hudson—

our longtime national spokesperson. Celebrity chef

Margrit Laﬂ eur promises to serve up one of his memo-

rable dinners, and the wines will be personally selected

by master sommelier Peter Brunswick. Most excitingly,

two mystery guests from Beverly Hills will be there that

evening—among the best-known philanthropists in the

world.

As a table sponsor, you'll be credited as one of our

Patron Angels—and, believe me, the tangible gratitude

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Common Forms of Business Writing

118

of our kids will bring you the lasting satisfaction that

you have vastly improved their lives and well-being.

Our kids are reachable and teachable, but only through

the generosity of our community's philanthropic

leaders.

Many people, of course, can't help us in our mis-

sion. We count on our Patron Angels. I hope you'll

spend a few minutes browsing through the Home's

brochure (enclosed) and that you'll ﬁ ll out the card

committing to ﬁ ll ten seats at your table (a $1,500

tax-deductible gift).

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Sincerely,

Now look again at the bulleted list that precedes the

letter to Marion (our ﬁ ctitious recipient): The writer

deals with every item on the list. With a letter like that,

you can hope to elicit prompt action from an acceptable

percentage of recipients.

Ease into bad news

If you have a rejection to deliver in your letter, sandwich

it between happier elements. Don't start with a direct

"no." Your readers can bear disappointment more easily

if you begin on a genuine positive note and then explain

the reason for the negative decision. They'll also be more

likely to grant your wishes—make a purchase, sign up for

your webinar, renew a membership—despite your deny-

ing theirs.

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NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

We regret to inform you

that we cannot supply the

500 copies of Negotiate It

Now! at the 60% discount

that you have requested.

No one—not even one of

our authors, and not even

the biggest bookselling

chains—receives such a hefty

discount. If you would care

to resubmit your order at the

more modest ﬁ gure of 30%,

we will gladly consider the

order at that time. But I can

oﬀ er no guarantees.

How rewarding to hear that

you intend to use Negotiate

It Now! as part of your busi-

ness summit. You've chosen

the best book on the subject,

and we'd be delighted to sup-

ply it.

Although you've requested

a 60% discount oﬀ list price,

the most we can oﬀ er is 30%.

That's the largest discount

available to anyone, and we're

happy to extend it to you with

a purchase of 500 copies.

Recipients of bad news will probably be unhappy no

matter what. But to some extent you can control just how

unhappy they'll be. Some tips:

• Adopt the reader's perspective—and be your best

self. If your correspondent is rude, be polite; if

anxious, be sympathetic; if confused, be lucid; if

stubborn, be patient; if helpful, show gratitude;

if accusatory, be reasonable and just in admitting

any faults.

• Answer questions directly.

• Don't overexplain. Say only as much as necessary

to get your point across.

• Put things in the simplest possible terms—never

use "insider talk" or bizspeak.

• Use the voice of a thoughtful human being, not a

robot.

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Even if your letter grants a beneﬁ t or request, it may

irk the recipient if it does so in a way that puzzles, sounds

grudging, or seems indifferent to the reader's pre dic -

ament.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Joan—

In response to your

request for a travel subsidy

to the conference where

your award will be given,

Jonathan has reminded me

of our current discretionary-

spending freeze. He has de-

cided, however, to make an

exception in this instance so

long as your ﬂ ight is no more

than $400 and you stick to a

$50 per diem. Please submit

your fully documented ex-

penses upon your return.

Sincerely,

Rebekah

Joan—

Congratulations on your

Spivey Award! We're delighted

for you. Jonathan hastened to

tell me that despite our current

discretionary-spending freeze,

he wants to support your travel

to accept your award. We can

manage a $400 ﬂ ight reim-

bursement and a $50 per diem

for on-the-ground expenses.

You'll be a great company rep-

resentative, I know, and I only

wish I could be there myself to

see you honored.

Sincerely,

Rebekah

Brandy—

At this time you have

now used up all your avail-

able sick-leave days and

vacation days for the year. A

sister-in-law does not qualify

for the closeness of relation

required for an employee to

be eligible for compensated

bereavement leave, so you

will be docked for any days

you choose to be absent

next week around the time

of the funeral. I'm afraid that

policy is simply inﬂ exible,

and I checked with Jane to

con ﬁ rmthis.

Sincerely,

Pamela

Brandy—

Once again I want to extend

my condolences for your fam-

ily's loss. Take the time you

need next week to be with

your family. I'm sorry to report

that the days will be uncom-

pensated, according to our

policies for bereavement leave,

but I hope you'll call on me if

I can do anything else for you

in this time of need. Jane joins

me in sending our heartfelt

sympathies.

Sincerely,

Pamela

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ENCLOSED PLEASE FIND

See what business-writing authors have long said about

this wooden phrase and others like it:

Richard Grant White (1880): "[Please ﬁ nd en-

closed:] A more ridiculous use of words, it seems to

me, there could not be."

Sherwin Cody (1908): "All stereotyped words [that]

are not used in talking should be avoided in letter

writing. There is an idea that a certain peculiar com-

mercial jargon is appropriate in business letters.

The fact is, nothing injures business more than this

system of words found only in business letters. The

test of a word or phrase or method of expression

should be, 'Is it what I would say to my customer if I

were talking to him instead of writing to him?'"

Wallace E. Bartholomew & Floyd Hurlbut (1924):

"Inclosed herewith please ﬁ nd. Inclosed and herewith

mean the same thing. How foolish to tell your reader

twice exactly where the check is, and then to suggest

that he look around to see if he can ﬁ nd it anywhere.

Say, 'We are inclosing our check for $25.50.'"

A. Charles Babenroth (1942): "Enclosed please ﬁ nd.

Needless and faulty phraseology. The word please

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122

has little meaning in this instance, and the word

ﬁ nd is improperly used. : Enclosed please ﬁ nd

sample of our #1939 black elastic ribbon. :

We are enclosing (or We enclose) a sample of our

#1939 black elastic ribbon."

L. E. Frailey (1965): "So much for the worn-out,

hackneyed expressions [enclosed herewith, en-

closed please ﬁ nd, herewith please ﬁ nd] so often

seen in business letters—whiskers, rubber-stamps,

chestnuts, call them what you please. They are

sleeping pills [that] defeat the aim of making every

letter a warm, personal contact with the reader."

Gerald J. Alred, Charles T. Brusaw, & Walter E.

Oliu (1993): "Using unnecessarily formal words

(such as herewith ) and outdated phrases (such

as please ﬁ nd enclosed) is another cause of

aﬀ ectation."

Kelly Cannon (2004): "[I]n any business letter,

certain principles are universal. 'Inure to the beneﬁ t

of' is four words too long, 'enclosed please ﬁ nd'

sounds pompous and silly, and 'I am writing this

letter to inform you that . . .' is a thoughtless state-

ment of the obvious."

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Don't write in anger

Be kind and diplomatic, and say please and thank you.

Courtesy is necessary to all business transactions—even

letters of complaint. Omit it, and you'll be dismissed as a

crank. You can be courteous while still being direct.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

We are astonished at

your complaint. The bro-

chures that we printed were

exactly as you speciﬁ ed. You

okayed the sample paper,

the typesetting, and the

proofreading (we gave you

an extra three hours). You

chose the hot-pink bor-

ders with the ﬁ ne-screen

halftones in the body type

against our advice. You

insisted on drop-shipping by

the 18th, and as you know,

a rushed job does not allow

for ﬁ rst-rate press work.

Moreover, we quoted you

a bargain-basement price.

Under the circumstances we

believe that any unbiased

observer would say that we

performed remarkably well

under the impossible condi-

tions you imposed.

We agree with you that

the brochures did not match

the high standards you have

a right to expect from us. But

we believed, in this instance,

that you considered the color

quality less crucial than a low

price and a quick turnaround.

So we pushed the work through

production in three days' less

time than we usually require.

We advised against your

using hot-pink borders and

ﬁ ne-screen halftones on the

grade of paper you chose. Still,

we exercised some ingenuity to

achieve better results than are

ordinarily possible. I mention

this not to avoid responsibility

but merely to suggest that we

did the best that could be done

under diﬃ cult circumstances. If

you'll allow us a few more days

next time, as you ordinarily do,

the results will be better.

As you can see, a combative, superior tone irritates and

alienates the reader—and probably loses a customer. A

more diplomatic approach still gets the point across (rush

jobs always take a hit on quality), but without souring the

relationship.

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124

When you receive unreasonable letters, don't ever re-

spond in kind. That just starts a negative chain reaction.

Approach complaints with a dedication to ﬁ rst-rate ser-

vice. Write with the same warmth and friendliness you'd

use in face-to-face conversations. If you or your company

made a mistake, avoid the temptation to ignore it, cover

it up, or shift the blame. Instead of deceiving readers,

you'll provoke more ire. When you blunder, admit error

and say what you've done (or will be doing) to correct it.

Stress the desire to improve service.

Recap

• Keep your language simple, personal, and direct.

Avoid canned phrases that add little but pomposity

and verbiage to your letter.

• Motivate your readers to act on your letter by giv-

ing them reasons that matter to them.

• When conveying bad news, soften the blow by

opening on a positive note. Follow up by explain-

ing the reason for the unfavorable outcome—

without overexplaining.

• Consider the reader: Be polite, sympathetic, and

professional.

• Remain courteous and diplomatic. Accept respon-

sibility for any mistakes you may have made.

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125

Chapter 20

Memos and

Reports

Memos and reports are often used to get people up to

speed on an issue, to induce action, or both. So make it

immediately clear in each element—your title, summary,

body, and conclusion—what you want readers to learn

about or do.

Pick a short, clear title

Whether you're writing a memo's subject line or a report

title, choose concise, sure-footed language that says ex-

actly what the document is about.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

Subject: Siegelson Subject: Approval of Siegelson

Acquisition

Subject: Settlement Subject: Why We Should Reject Frost's

Settlement Oﬀ er

Subject: Print Run Subject: Ginsburg Autobiography Print

Run

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126

The titles on the left hint at the topics covered but don't

let readers know what they're supposed to do with the in-

formation. Those on the right are more pointed (without

being wordy): The ﬁ rst and third titles promise status up-

dates; the second asks readers to follow a recommendation.

Summarize key speciﬁ cs up front

Figure out how many main issues you're addressing—

preferably no more than three (see chapter 4)—and then

for each one state: (1) the issue in a way that anyone can

understand, (2) your solution, and (3) the reason for your

solution. Here's an example:

Summary

Issue: Arnold Paper Supply has consistently failed to

meet our deadlines for delivery of multicolor, printed

cardstock.

Proposed Solution: Switch to National Paper and

Plastics Company, which has a higher ﬁ xed fee.

Reason: Though National Paper and Plastics Com-

pany has a higher rate per delivery, its turnaround

is quicker. This will increase efﬁ ciency in the ware-

house, allow us to ﬁ ll more orders, and help us to

establish goodwill with retailers who have been angry

with us for not meeting their deadlines.

By sharing everything important at the beginning of

the document, you'll end up repeating yourself—but in a

way that's reinforcing, not redundant. Readers will get a

quick orientation with your very short version up front;

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Memos and Reports

127

the fully elaborated version in the body will unpack each

point, providing details and data for support. I recom-

mend going back and forth between the summary and

the body when writing your ﬁ rst draft: Start by stating

the problem and offering your best shot at the answer in

your summary. As you do more work on the body of the

memo or report, you'll go back and reﬁ ne the problem

and the answer.

Write your summary for three types of readers:

• A primary audience of one or more executives

interested only in a quick status update, your

ﬁ ndings and conclusions about a problem, or your

recommendations.

• A line of readers who may be called in (with or

without your knowledge) to assess the soundness

of your document, judging its merits according to

their own fact-checking and critical analysis.

• Future readers (including those in the ﬁ rst cat-

egory two years from now) who will be required

to quarry information from your document some

time after you've written it. (After all, memos and

reports are rarely acted on quickly: They may be

laid aside for weeks or months or even years before

anyone has the resources—or a mandate—to act.)

All three types of readers have a legitimate claim to

your attention. More important, you need to win them all

over if you want your recommendations to go anywhere.

Even if someone else has assigned you the question

you're exploring, you must deﬁ ne it in your summary.

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WHEN WRITING A REPORT . . .

• Make sure you understand why you're writing

and what you're reporting on.

• Do your best, in light of your background knowl-

edge and initial research, to write a summary

that concisely states the problem, your solution,

and why your solution will work or why it's pref-

erable to alternatives.

• Discern sources of relevant information.

• From those sources, gather all the data and

explanations that you can.

• Synthesize relevant observations and inferences

and throw out the rest.

• Put your ﬁ ndings into report form.

• Revise your summary to match your body text.

You, the writer, are in the best position to limit its scope:

The person who did the assigning may not know enough

about the problem to raise the right question—or to un-

derstand that it actually contains three subquestions.

In fact, you won't know these things until you do your

research, which may involve digging up data that reveal

where the problem lurks, reading about how other orga-

nizations have tried to solve it, talking with people who

have discovered some helpful workarounds, and so on.

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Memos and Reports

129

You should do enough research to understand the prob-

lem. Then you state the problem so clearly that anyone

could understand why it's worth solving.

If you're making a recommendation, say (1) what

needs to be done, (2) who should do it, (3) when and

where it should be done, (4) why it should be done, and

(5) how it should be done.

A brief marketing report might look like this:

Marketing Strategy for Skinny Mini Line of Chocolates

Summary

Issue: Within the last ﬁ scal year, Pantheon Chocolate's

sales have dropped from $13,320,000 to $10,730,000,

but its market share remains unchanged at 37%.

Proposed Solution: Increase promotion of the Skinny

Mini line of chocolates. These chocolates contain less

sugar and fat than the regular line.

Reason: Health-conscious consumers want low-calorie

options but don't want to sacriﬁ ce full ﬂ avor. The Skinny

Mini chocolates have fewer calories than Pantheon's

regular chocolates but the same ﬂ avor.

Consumers are buying more "healthy alternative"

chocolates

Because consumers increasingly regard sugar and fat as

unhealthy, they are not buying as much high-end gour-

met chocolate as they were a year ago. This has led to

a decline in sales for all high-end chocolate makers, in-

cluding Pantheon. But for candies marketed as "healthy

alternatives" with less sugar and fat and fewer calories,

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130

sales have increased 42% in the same period. Marketing

studies show that consumers of "healthy alternative"

candies are most attracted to low-calorie chocolates

that are packaged in speciﬁ c-calorie portions rather

than by weight.

These consumers also complain that low-calorie

candies lack the rich ﬂ avor that they are used to,

and they are willing to pay more for quality. Pan-

theon already produces a line of low-calorie gourmet

chocolates, Skinny Minis, that have fewer calories than

Pantheon's regular candies but the same ﬂ avor. They're

currently sold by the pound or in gift boxes in high-end

chocolate boutiques and as elegantly wrapped bars in

coﬀ ee shops.

Recommendations

• To reach more health-conscious consumers,

Pantheon should package Skinny Mini choco-

lates in a variety of portion-controlled sizes and

make them available in health-food stores and

supermarkets as well as the chocolate and cof-

fee shops.

• The marketing campaign should stress the con-

trolled portion and limited calories of each Skinny

Mini bar or gift box, and the packaging should

boldly display the low calorie count.

Recap

• Choose a concise title or subject line that tells

readers what topics the memo or report covers

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Memos and Reports

131

and what they should do about it (or why they

should care).

• Begin your document by addressing your main

points and outlining the issue, your solution, and

the reason for it.

• Work from this summary when elaborating the

body of your ﬁ rst draft.

• Modify the summary as you go to ensure that it

accurately reﬂ ects what's in the body.

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133

Chapter 21

Performance

Appraisals

Writing performance appraisals, sometimes called em-

ployee reviews, needn't be a dreaded responsibility. As

long as you have gathered your facts in advance—re-

viewed the notes you've taken throughout the year, asked

others for feedback on the people you supervise, and

carefully read people's self-assessments—the drafting

isn't onerous if you have an ample evaluative vocabu-

lary. I've written this chapter so you'll have some helpful

phrases at the ready.

The sample phrases that follow address seven aspects

of work: attitude, efﬁ ciency, human relations, judgment,

knowledge, reliability, and communication skills. But

you can adapt the wording to suit whatever qualities

you'd like to focus on. Then it's a matter of pairing the

phrases with speciﬁ cs that support them. For example:

"When we had several layoffs last June, Lauren remained

utterly calm and collected while demonstrating keen sen-

sitivity to those who lost their jobs. She [ﬁ ll in whatever

particular action was noteworthy]."

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Attitude

Superb • shows unwavering commitment

• always gives maximal eﬀ ort

• is always friendly and happy to help

• always brings out the best in others

Good • shows strong commitment

• usually makes a strong eﬀ ort

• is usually friendly and happy to help

• usually brings out the best in others

Acceptable • shows adequate commitment

• makes an eﬀ ort

• is often friendly and happy to help

• is often a positive inﬂ uence on the group

Needs Improvement • could show more commitment

• doesn't always make an eﬀ ort

• is sometimes quarrelsome

• sometimes creates tension within the group

Poor • lacks commitment

• rarely makes a real eﬀ ort

• is quarrelsome and sometimes even hostile

• often creates tension within the group

Eﬃ ciency

Superb • never wastes time or eﬀ ort

• delegates eﬀ ectively

• always completes tasks on time

• can manage many projects at a time

Good • rarely wastes time or eﬀ ort

• usually delegates appropriately

• almost always completes tasks on time

• can manage several projects at a time

Acceptable • usually doesn't waste time or eﬀ ort

• delegates pretty well

• usually completes tasks on time

• can manage more than one project at

a time

Needs Improvement • sometimes wastes time and eﬀ ort

• tries to do too much without delegating

• fails to complete tasks on time

• cannot manage more than one project at a

time

Poor • often wastes time and eﬀ ort

• usually fails to delegate when appropriate

• can't be counted on to complete tasks on time

• struggles to manage even one project at a time

Human relations

Superb • demonstrates keen sensitivity to others and an

uncanny ability to understand their needs

• participates actively and collegially in meetings

• works exceptionally well on teams

• relates to customers extremely well

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135

Good • usually demonstrates sensitivity to others

• participates eﬀ ectively in meetings

• works eﬀ ectively on teams

• relates to customers well

Acceptable • often demonstrates sensitivity to others

• participates adequately in meetings

• gets along with fellow team members

• relates to customers competently

Needs Improvement • does not always pick up on interpersonal cues

• sometimes wastes others' time in meetings

• is sometimes motivated more by personal goals

than by team goals

• sometimes alienates customers through

inattention

Poor • rarely pays attention to others' reactions

• often wastes others' time in meetings

• does not work well on teams

• often alienates customers with impoliteness and

sarcasm

Judgment

Superb • makes excellent choices and informed

decisions

• remains utterly calm and collected even in times

of crisis

• knows precisely which problems need immedi-

ate attention and which ones can wait

• behaves professionally and appropriately in

every situation

Good • makes sound choices and reasonable decisions

• remains relatively calm and collected even in

times of crisis

• generally knows which problems need immedi-

ate attention and which ones can wait

• behaves professionally and appropriately

Acceptable • generally makes sound choices and informed

decisions

• remains mostly calm and collected except in

times of crisis

• does a pretty good job distinguishing between

problems that need immediate attention and

those that can wait

• generally behaves professionally and

appropriately

Needs Improvement • sometimes makes poor choices and ill-informed

decisions

• sometimes lacks the calm and collected de-

meanor required in high-pressure circumstances

• often doesn't distinguish between problems

that need immediate attention and those that

can wait

• sometimes behaves unprofessionally and

inappropriately

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136

Judgment (continued)

Poor • often makes poor choices and ill-informed

decisions

• often lacks the calm and collected demeanor

required in high-pressure circumstances

• typically fails to distinguish between problems

that need immediate attention and those that

can wait

• often behaves unprofessionally and

inappropriately

Knowledge

Superb • is exceptionally well informed about all aspects

of the job

• demonstrates extraordinarily comprehensive

knowledge

• skillfully handles complex assignments without

supervision

• has a comprehensive knowledge of the industry

Good • is well informed about key aspects of the job

• demonstrates thorough knowledge

• can handle complex assignments with some

supervision

• has strong knowledge of the industry

Acceptable • understands the job

• demonstrates adequate knowledge

• can handle moderately complex assignments

with supervision

• has an acceptable degree of knowledge of the

industry

Needs Improvement • doesn't fully understand the job

• demonstrates less than satisfactory knowledge

• sometimes mishandles assignments of moder-

ate complexity, even with supervision

• has insuﬃ cient knowledge of the industry

Poor • is ill-informed about many aspects of the job

• demonstrates inadequate knowledge

• mishandles basic assignments

• has little knowledge of the industry

Reliability

Superb • always meets deadlines

• is unfailingly dependable

• achieves excellent results in urgent situations

• always delivers on promises

Good • meets deadlines

• is highly dependable

• achieves good results in urgent situations

• almost always delivers on promises

Acceptable • meets most deadlines

• is dependable

• achieves acceptable results in urgent situations

• delivers pretty consistently on promises

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137

Needs Improvement • sometimes fails to meet important deadlines

• is sometimes undependable

• sometimes fails to achieve acceptable results in

urgent situations

• sometimes fails to deliver on promises

Poor • often fails to meet important deadlines

• is rarely dependable

• often fails to achieve acceptable results in

urgent situations

• can't be counted on to deliver on promises

Communication skills

Superb • writes and speaks with remarkable clarity

• never gets bogged down in unnecessary details

• has superior communication skills in person and

over the phone

• develops and delivers imaginative, clear, and

concise presentations

Good • writes and speaks clearly

• rarely gets bogged down in unnecessary details

• has sound communication skills in person and

over the phone

• develops and delivers clear, concise

presentations

Acceptable • generally writes and speaks clearly

• usually avoids getting bogged down in unneces-

sary details

• has adequate communication skills in person

and over the phone

• develops and delivers acceptable presentations

Needs Improvement • sometimes writes and speaks unclearly and with

undue complexity

• sometimes gets bogged down in unnecessary

details

• sometimes struggles to communicate in person

and over the phone

• develops and delivers presentations in need of

further work and polish

Poor • writes and speaks unclearly and with undue

complexity

• gets bogged down in unnecessary details

• fails to communicate eﬀ ectively in person and

over the phone

• develops and delivers presentations that ramble

and lack clarity

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138

Recap

• Prepare by gathering your facts in advance: Keep

performance notes throughout the year and review

them before writing. Ask other colleagues for feed-

back on those you're evaluating. Carefully review

the employees' self-assessments.

• Use the sample phrases provided here to help

articulate your impressions.

• Always pair your general statements with speciﬁ c

examples that support them.

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139

Appendix A

A Checklist for

the Four Stages

of Writing

Madman □Consider why you're writing: What's

moved you to write? What's the assign-

ment? What do you hope to achieve?

□Think about who your readers are and

what they need to know.

□Figure out how much time you have,

and work out a rough schedule for

gathering ideas and material, outlining,

preparing a draft, and revising.

□Research with imagination and gusto.

Take notes on relevant information.

□Push yourself to be creative. Don't be

content with obvious ideas that just

anyone would think of.

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Appendix A

140

Architect □Jot down your three main points in

complete sentences—with as much

speciﬁ city as you can.

□Consider the best order of the

three points and reorganize them if

necessary.

□Decide how to open and conclude the

document.

□Think about what visual aids might be

helpful in conveying your ideas.

Carpenter □If possible, turn away from all distrac-

tions. Silence your phone and your

computer alerts, and ﬁ nd an hour or so

of solitude. You'll be writing.

□Use your three-point outline as a

guide.

□Start writing paragraphs that sup-

port the point you ﬁ nd easiest to

start with—then move to the other

points.

□Write swiftly without stopping to edit

or polish.

□Try to write a full section in one sitting.

If you must get up in the middle of a

section, start the next sentence with

a few words and then leave. (When

you come back, you'll ﬁ nd it easier to

resume a half-completed sentence than

to start a new one.)

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A Checklist for the Four Stages of Writing

141

Judge □Immediately after completing your

draft, read it through with the idea of

amplifying ideas here and there.

□Then let it cool off—overnight, if you

can, or for a few minutes if you're work-

ing under an urgent deadline.

□When you return to your draft, con-

sider it from the audience's perspective.

Will it be clear to everyone who looks at

it, or does it require inside knowledge?

Is it concise, or does it waste words and

time?

□Identify the draft's two biggest ﬂ aws

and try to ﬁ x them.

□Ask yourself:

• Is anything essential missing?

• Are important points stressed?

• Is the meaning of each sentence

clear and accurate?

• Are my transitions smooth?

• What can I trim without sacriﬁ cing

important content?

• Are there any vague passages I can

sharpen with speciﬁ c facts?

• Are there boring passages I can

word more vividly?

• Can I improve the phrasing?

• Can I improve the punctuation?

• Are there any typos?

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143

Appendix B

A Dozen

Grammatical Rules

You Absolutely

Need to Know

1. It is perfectly acceptable to start a sentence with

And or But.

The single most important element in ﬂ uid

writing is the use of effective transitions

between sentences and paragraphs. And no

transition is more effective than the plain

single-syllable words and and but.

The notion that it's ungrammatical to start

a sentence with a conjunction has long been

ignored by the best writers and debunked by

reputable grammarians. Look at the op-ed

page of any major newspaper or scan through

some pages of any well-edited magazine and

you'll see plenty of examples. Why? Because

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Appendix B

144

conjunctions are excellent transition tools,

signaling how the sentence to follow ﬁ ts in

with what came before—and because they're

short, sharp, and ﬂ eet. And and but are usually

more effective than clunky conjunctive adverbs

such as additionally and however, which add

syllables and demand a comma after them.

2. It is perfectly acceptable to end a sentence with a

preposition.

The "rule" that you should not end a sentence

with a preposition is a misbegotten notion

based on Latin syntax and expounded by a few

(a very few) 19th-century writers. Grammar-

ians have long since dismissed it as ill-founded

and unnecessary.

Often a sentence that ends with a preposi-

tion sounds far more natural than the same

sentence forced into avoiding the terminal

preposition. Consider: What will the new prod-

uct be used for? versus For what purpose will

the new product be used?

That said, a strong sentence should end

forcefully because the end of a sentence is the

most emphatic position. A preposition is rarely

a powerful sentence-ender, but it is not an

ungrammatical one.

3. The adverb corresponding to the adjective good

iswell.

When describing performance, manner, action,

and the like, use the adverb well <The intern

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A Dozen Grammatical Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

145

works well under pressure> <The research

and development stage is going well> <We

wish them well in the future>. Though be-

coming more widespread, the adverbial use

of good is nonstandard English <The vice

presidents *worked good as a team> <The new

water pump *is running good>. The question

whether to use good or well frequently arises

when someone asks "How are you doing?" The

best answer—assuming a positive response—

is "I'm doing well" (or "I'm ﬁ ne, thank you").

Saying "I'm good" is common but unreﬁ ned.

The response "I'm *doing good" is substandard

because good is there being used as an adverb.

An exception to the rule against using good as

an adverb applies with certain set phrases

<a good many more> <did it but good>.

4. The subject of the sentence determines the num-

ber of the verb.

A subject and its verb must both be either

singular or plural. Grammar Girl says so.

(Grammar Girl and says are both singular.)

All grammarians say so. (Grammarians and

say are both plural.) The rule seems so elemen-

tary as to be trivial. But a lot can go wrong. A

prepositional phrase modifying the subject is a

common source of trouble: Should an over-

supply of foreign imports take a singular or

plural verb? The answer is singular, to match

the subject oversupply. Although compound

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Appendix B

146

subjects generally take plural verbs, sometimes

a subject really expresses a single (and singu-

lar) idea <The company's bread and butter is

still shipping>. The subject, bread and butter,

is plural in form but singular in sense, so it

takes the singular verb is.

There (in its use as a subject stand-in, as in

There is another way) presents a special prob-

lem, one that some authorities call the most

common grammatical error today. In inverted

sentences, the true subject follows the verb

<There go our fourth-quarter proﬁ ts>. The

subject proﬁ ts is after the verb go. Yet people

seem to want singular verbs with there regard-

less of what follows, and errors result <*There

is still market capacity and established com-

petition to be considered>. The compound

subject capacity and competition should take

the plural verb are, not the singular verb is.

Illusory compounds can also cause trouble.

These occur with constructions such as to-

gether with, as well as, and the like, none of

which forms a plural. <The board, along with

the president and CFO, endorses the stock

split>. The subject is the singular board, which

takes the singular verb endorses.

5. Both either and neither, as subjects, take singular

verbs.

Beware of distractions caused by prepositional

phrases containing plural objects: The sub-

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A Dozen Grammatical Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

147

ject—either or neither— is still singular <Either

of the marketing plans involves [not involve]

capital investment> <Neither of our expan-

sion options provides [not provide] a total

solution>.

6. With neither/nor and either/or in the subject posi-

tion, the second element controls the number of

the verb.

When the correlative conjunctions either/or or

neither/nor frame alternatives in the singular,

the verb is singular <Either phone or fax is ac-

ceptable for your response>. When the alter-

natives are plural, the verb is plural <Neither

our accountants nor our lawyers are concerned

about the merger>. But when one element is

singular and the other is plural, match the verb

to the second element <Neither the regional

managers nor the vice-president for sales likes

[not like] the proposed campaign's theme>

<Either the home ofﬁ ce or the branch manag-

ers are [not is ] largely responsible for em-

ployee morale>.

7. A ﬂ at adverb like thus or doubtless takes no –ly

ending.

Most adverbs are formed by adding the -ly

sufﬁ x to adjectives (large makes largely, quick

makes quickly) or changing the -able sufﬁ x

to -ably (amicable makes amicably, capable

makes capably ). But the English language also

contains a fair number of adverbs that do not

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Appendix B

148

end in -ly (such as fast, ill, and seldom). With

these, it is unnecessary—and unidiomatic—to

add the sufﬁ x -ly. The two most common ex-

amples are *doubtlessly and *thusly.

8. The words however, therefore, and otherwise can-

not join independent clauses without additional

punctuation.

An independent clause (1) contains a sub-

ject and a verb and (2) expresses a complete

thought. It can stand alone as a sentence, or

it can be connected with another clause by a

comma and a conjunction (such as and, but,

or) <The new advertising campaign is ready,

but the CEO has yet to approve it>. When two

independent clauses are joined with a conjunc-

tive adverb like however, a semicolon must go in

front of the connector and a comma after

<Mr. Bingham can't attend the meeting; how-

ever, he hopes to call before we adjourn>. Omit-

ting the semicolon or replacing it with a comma

creates what is known as a "comma splice"

<*We were supposed to arrive at 4:00 p.m.,

however, we didn't arrive until 5:00>.

9. With a verb phrase, the adverb usually goes after

the ﬁ rst auxiliary verb.

Writing authorities have long agreed that mid-

phrase is the strongest and most natural place

for an adverb <Industry experts have long

agreed on the product's effectiveness>. The

alternatives are awkward <Industry experts

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A Dozen Grammatical Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

149

long have agreed on the product's effective-

ness> or nonsensical <Industry experts have

agreed long on the product's effectiveness>.

Resistance to this guidance may be due to the

old superstition that it's ungrammatical to split

an inﬁ nitive (it isn't), since that is one type of

split verb <We expect the new product line and

expanded territory to almost double our sales

in the next two years>.

When the phrase has more than one aux-

iliary verb, the most natural placement is

usually after the ﬁ rst one (as in has long been

assumed).

10. Relative pronouns (that, which, and who) must

appear alongside their antecedents.

A relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom,

and various forms with the -ever sufﬁ x) serves

one of two purposes. First, it can link a de-

pendent clause to an independent one <Who-

ever wants to participate is welcome>. The

dependent clause (whoever wants to partici-

pate) serves as the subject of the main clause.

Second, it can join a clause with its antecedent

<Those who want to participate are welcome>.

Here, the dependent clause (who want to

participate) adds crucial information about its

antecedent, those.

The second type of relative pronoun should

be close to its antecedent—preferably imme-

diately after it. The link must be clear because

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Appendix B

150

trouble can occur when the reference becomes

uncertain <*Please discuss the customer-

service position in the accounting department

that is being eliminated>. Which is being

eliminated, the position or the department?

Restating the sentence clariﬁ es it <Please dis-

cuss the customer-service position that is being

eliminated in the accounting department>.

The relative pronoun that immediately follows

its antecedent, customer-service position.

11. An appositive is set oﬀ by commas when it is not

essential to the sentence (when it is nonrestric-

tive), but is not set oﬀ by commas when it is es-

sential (restrictive).

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that

follows another noun (or pronoun) and identi-

ﬁ es or depicts it more fully <My colleague Pat

agrees> <The customer, a tall man in an over-

sized suit, left his keys on the counter>.

In the ﬁ rst example, the appositive Pat is not

set off by commas from the rest of the sen-

tence. In the second, a tall man in an oversized

suit is set off. The reason is that appositives,

like relative clauses (those introduced by

which, who, and whom), may or may not be

essential to the meaning of the sentence. Pat,

in the ﬁ rst sentence, is essential—it speciﬁ es

which colleague (presumably out of several) is

being referred to. In the second sentence, the

appositive merely adds description. We could

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A Dozen Grammatical Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

151

also say that Pat, in the ﬁ rst sentence, deﬁ nes

or restricts its referent, colleague, while the

appositive in the second sense is indeﬁ nite

or nonrestrictive. Current stylebooks use the

terms restrictive and nonrestrictive to label

these qualities.

Appositives may also be set off by em-dashes

(typically for emphasis) or parentheses (typi-

cally for deemphasis) instead of commas.

12. Correlative conjunctions (those used in pairs)

require parallel phrasing.

Correlative conjunctions (such as both . . .

and, neither . . . nor, and not only . . . but also)

work in pairs, joining related constructions

that match in syntax. Each conjunction should

immediately precede the part of speech it

describes. Parallelism is rarely a problem with

simple nouns <neither time nor money>, but

it becomes tricky with phrases and clauses, as

in the erroneous phrasing *We not only raised

our regional market share but also our proﬁ t

margin, which should read: We raised not only

our regional market share but also our proﬁ t

margin. The verb raised must be outside the

ﬁ rst correlative conjunction (not only) to apply

to both possessive phrases (our regional mar-

ket share and our proﬁ t margin).

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153

Appendix C

A Dozen

Punctuation Rules

You Absolutely

Need to Know

1. Hyphenate your phrasal adjectives.

A small-business incentive is different from a

small business incentive. A limited-liability

clause is different from a limited liability

clause. When two or more words as a unit

modify a noun, they must be hyphenated (un-

less certain exceptions apply). So a hotel's door

sign advising the staff not to disturb the guests

would be a do-not-disturb sign. A company

that is 25 years old is a 25-year-old company.

There are some exceptions: (1) Don't hy-

phenate simple phrases formed by an -ly ad-

verb and a past-participial adjective <a greatly

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Appendix C

154

exaggerated claim>. (2) Don't hyphenate

phrases formed with proper nouns <New Zea-

land exports> or foreign words <a post facto

rationalization>. (3) Generally, don't hyphen-

ate phrasal adjectives used after the noun they

modify <a job well done>, but there are excep-

tions based solely on conventions of usage <our

HR manager is risk-averse by nature> <the

information is time-sensitive>.

2. Use a comma before and or or when listing three

or more items.

Although simple series <red, white, and blue>

might not require the so-called serial comma

before the conjunction to be perfectly clear,

clarity fades fast as series become longer and

more complex <We hope to boost sales in the

target area, to build the company's name-

recognition statewide and beyond, and to

attract investors for possible franchise oppor-

tunities>. So what is the rule?

The Chicago Manual of Style and other

authorities on professional, technical, and

scholarly writing almost universally endorse

using the serial comma in all series for one

good reason: It is sometimes wrong (ambigu-

ous or worse) to omit it, but never wrong to

include it.

3. Don't use a comma to separate two compound

predicates. Do use punctuation—usually a comma

but a semicolon if needed for clarity—to separate

a series of three or more compound predicates.

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A Dozen Punctuation Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

155

When two predicates share the same subject,

it's common not to repeat the subject. If the

second clause repeats the subject, then the

comma is proper before the conjunction <I

stopped by yesterday, and I will call today>.

But if the subject isn't repeated (is shared by

both predicates), there should be no comma

before the conjunction <I stopped by yester-

day and will call today>. When three or more

such clauses are combined (sharing the same

subject), the predicates become a series and do

require at least a comma to separate them <I

wrote him yesterday, stopped by yesterday, and

will call today>.

When one or more of the parts in the series

contain commas, use semicolons instead to

separate the predicates <I wrote him last week;

I stopped by yesterday with the paperwork,

the deposit check, and the keys; and I will call

him today>. The same principle holds for a

compound predicate <I wrote him last week;

stopped by yesterday with the paperwork, the

deposit check, and the keys; and will call him

today>.

4. Don't use an apostrophe to form plural nouns.

The use of apostrophes to form plurals (rather

than possessives or contractions) is almost

always incorrect. Most proper nouns take a

simple -s, while those ending in -s, -x, -z, and

sibilant -ch or -sh take -es. The exceptions

to the no-apostrophe rule are for lowercase

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Appendix C

156

letters <Mind your p's and q's> and capital

letters when an apostrophe might prevent a

miscue <all A's on the audit report>. Don't use

apostrophes to pluralize numbers or capital-

ized abbreviations without periods <ATMs

became ubiquitous in the 1990s>. The usual

way to pluralize words and letters is to itali-

cize the word or letter and append -s in roman

type <Please delete the ﬁ rst two ors in the

sentence>.

The incorrect use of apostrophes is es-

pecially common when pluralizing names.

Mr. and Mrs. Smith are the Smiths, not *the

Smith's (or *the Smiths' ). Mr. and Mrs. Stevens

are the Stevenses (not *the Steven's or

*the Stevens').

5. Don't separate the grammatical subject from the

verb, unless there's a set-oﬀ intervening phrase.

As a rule, words and phrases that go together

should be together, not unduly separated. So

an appositive, for example, is next to the noun

or pronoun it elaborates <Maeve Peterson, the

new CEO, is . . .> and a pronoun should not

be so far from its antecedent as to make the

connection unclear. On the same principle, the

subject and verb in a sentence are best kept

close together so that the sentence does not

wander off on tangents.

That's not to say that an intervening phrase

or clause between the subject and verb is

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A Dozen Punctuation Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

157

always wrong. It can be an effective way

to modify the sense or add information

<Ms. Peterson, whose leadership at McLaugh-

lin Enterprises has been credited with that

ﬁ rm's turnaround, will take the reins here on

June 1>. Although this technique adds empha-

sis to the modifying matter, it's often clearer to

make the phrase or clause introductory so that

the subject and verb remain close <Credited

with turning around McLaughlin Enterprises

during her four years as CEO, Ms. Peterson

starts work here on June 1>.

6. Use bullets as attention-getting devices, but don't

overuse them.

Bullets draw the reader's eye to a list of

points without signaling that they're pre -

sented in a certain order. The best lists follow

these rules:

• Set up the list with an explanatory sentence

in the form of an introduction that ends

with a colon.

• Keep all the items parallel in grammatical

form (all noun phrases, say, or all predicates

starting with verbs) and somewhat similar

in length.

• Present the items with a hanging indent so

the bullets stand out to the left and all the

lines of type align.

• Typeset the items single-spaced, perhaps

with a bit of extra spacing between items.

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Appendix C

158

• Keep the bullets simple in appearance, es-

chewing whimsical artwork in favor of solid

bullet dots about the size of a lowercase o.

As with any other design device aimed at

signaling emphasis or attracting the reader's

attention, the overuse of bulleted lists dilutes

their impact.

7. Avoid quotation marks as a way of emphasizing

words.

Quotation marks can send mixed signals. Most

often they signal their traditional function: to

set off a quotation. Sometimes they suggest a

snide attitude <an "expert" in negotiation>, or

perhaps imply that what they contain is not

what it purports to be at all <Here's the "ﬁ -

nal" schedule>. They can be the equivalent of

introducing the words with "so-called." Given

all these different possible meanings, quotation

marks are a poor choice for emphasizing words

and phrases. That is traditionally the role of

italic type, an unambiguous signal.

Also avoid (1) underlining, the italic font's

uglier equivalent from the typewriter era;

(2) overuse of boldface type, which is best re-

served for titles and headings; and (3) all caps,

which is irritating and hard to read if longer

than a word or two.

8. Don't hyphenate most preﬁ xed terms.

American English is generally averse to hy-

phenating its preﬁ xes (anteroom, biennial,

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A Dozen Punctuation Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

159

deselect, proactive, quarterﬁ nal, semisweet).

Avoid the practice of inserting a hyphen, even

when it results in a doubled letter (cooperate,

reelect, misspeak). But there are a few excep-

tions: (1) when it's needed to avoid a miscue

or an ambiguity (re-create, re-lease, re-sign);

(2) when the root word is a proper noun ( pre-

Halloween sales); and (3) when using certain

preﬁ xes such as all- (all-inclusive), ex- (ex-

partner), and self- ( self-correcting).

9. Use a colon or a comma—never a semicolon—

after a salutation.

Colons are standard in business correspon-

dence <Dear Ms. Wilson:>, commas in

personal letters <Dear Barbara,>. Commas

may also be permissible for business letters,

depending on the personal relationship be-

tween the sender and the recipient. But to

use a semicolon (*Dear Mr. Jones;) is always

incorrect.

10. Long dashes have two defensible—and valuable—

uses: to frame and to emphasize.

First, long dashes—called em-dashes —frame

what is basically parenthetical matter and

make it stand out. Notice in the ﬁ rst sentence

how "called em-dashes" stands out. It could

just as easily have been set off from the rest of

the sentence by commas or placed inside pa-

rentheses. But the dashes give an interruptive

phrase special emphasis (while parentheses

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Appendix C

160

almost beg to be skipped over). It's a strong

technique that should be used but, like all ef-

fective writing devices, not overused.

Second, em-dashes are handy for short tags

that sit apart from the main sentence. The

em-dash replaces the colon but adds emphasis.

The setoff can come at the beginning of the

sentence <Customer service—it's our top prior-

ity> or at the end <No matter what the ﬁ eld, an

able workforce starts with and continues with

one thing—professional training>.

11. Don't use a comma when writing a month

andyear.

Stylebooks have long agreed that no comma

should appear between the month and year

<February 2012>. With the standard American

format of month–day–year, do use a comma

after the day <February 23, 2012>. No comma

is necessary with the day– month–year format

<23 February 2012>. Use a comma after the

year <Groundbreaking was held February 23,

2012, in Menomonee Falls> unless the date

is used adjectivally <the February 23, 2012

groundbreaking ceremonies>.

12. For singular possessives, add 's even if the word

ends with an -s, -z, -x, or -ss .

This is the ﬁ rst rule in Strunk & White's fa-

mous book The Elements of Style: A singular

possessive takes 's <Kansas's business climate>

<Holtz's contract> <Xerox's patents> <the

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A Dozen Punctuation Rules You Absolutely Need to Know

161

actress's endorsement>. But note that per-

sonal pronouns and who have their own form

without the 's (mine, our, ours, your, yours, his,

her, hers, its, their, theirs, whose). Also, if the

name of a corporation or other entity is formed

from a plural word, add only the apostrophe

<United Airlines' quarterly report> <The

United Arab Emirates' capital is Abu Dhabi>.

When forming a plural possessive, use

the word's standard plural form and add an

apostrophe to the ﬁ nal -s <caterers' fees> <the

bosses' ofﬁ ces>. An exception applies to plural

words that don't end in -s: they follow the

same rule as singular possessives <a line of

children's clothing> <the alumnae's reunion>.

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163

Appendix D

Common Usage

Gaﬀ es

In this top-20 list of usage points that distinguish sloppy

from reﬁ ned language, an asterisk precedes erroneous

words and phrases.

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

I *feel badly about the

oversight.

I feel bad about the oversight.

I'm *feeling very well about

the sales ﬁ gures.

I feel good (contented).

I feel well (healthy).

They're *doing good. They're doing well.

Just *between you and I. Just between you and me.

He expected *Helen and I

to help him.

He expected Helen and me

to help him.

She *could care less. She couldn't care less.

He's *laying down on the

couch.

He's lying down on the couch.

*Where are you at? Where are you?

*If I would have been

there . . . .

If I had been there . . . .

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Appendix D

164

NOT THIS: BUT THIS:

She serves on the board;

 *as such, she has ﬁ du-

ciary duties.

She's a board member; as

such, she has ﬁ duciary duties.

The letter was sent *on

accident.

The letter was sent by accident.

I *wish he was faster. I wish he were faster.

I *could of done it. I could have done it.

*in regards to in regard to, or regarding

*less items fewer items

He was *undoubtably guilty. He was undoubtedly guilty.

*preventative preventive

*There's lots of reasons. There are lots of reasons.

*as best as she can as best she can

*irregardless regardless, or irrespective

For more on usage, see Appendix F.

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165

Appendix E

Some Dos and

Don'ts of Business-

Writing Etiquette

Dos:

1. Proofread all documents before sending them

out to make sure the spelling and grammar are

correct.

2. Double-check that the recipient's name is

spelled correctly and that the form of address

is proper (Ms., Mrs., Miss, Mr., Dr., Judge,

Justice, Honorable, etc.). Double-check the

envelope, too, if there is one.

3. Sign business letters with your full name un-

less you're friends with the recipient. If the

salutation is "Dear Mr. Smith," sign your full

name; if it's "Dear George," sign your ﬁ rst

name only.

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Appendix E

166

4. Sign your letters with an ink pen and not with

a stamp of your signature.

5. Always include your contact information so

that the recipient will know how to respond

to you.

6. If you're sending a handwritten note to a busi-

ness contact or friend, use a stamp to mail

the letter rather than meter-stamping the

envelope.

7. Before sending an e-mail, make sure that you

have (a) included everyone you need in the

address block and (b) incorporated any attach-

ments you refer to in the e-mail.

8. Use white space effectively so that the docu-

ment reads well and is not a strain on peo-

ple's eyes. Create generous margins, leave

spaces between paragraphs, break up text

with subheads if appropriate, and indent

appropriately.

9. Date your communications (except e-mails,

which will date themselves) so that they give

the reader a reference time.

10. Write distinctive thank-you notes if you're

writing them to several people in the same

ofﬁ ce. It's counterproductive if recipients

compare their notes and realize you mass-

produced them.

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Some Dos and Don'ts of Business-Writing Etiquette

167

Don'ts:

1. Don't use all caps. It amounts to shouting at

the reader.

2. Don't return a letter to its sender by writing on

it to save time or paper. A reply should be on a

separate piece of paper, even if it's a short note.

Contracts and other agreements are a separate

issue.

3. Don't write "Thank you in advance." If you

want to thank people in a request, simply make

the request and then write "Thank you." Also,

be sure to say thanks (perhaps in person) again

when the task has been completed.

4. Don't use BCC on an e-mail unless you are

quite sure that it is necessary. It could get you

a bad reputation as being indiscreet.

5. Don't use tiny or unusual fonts that make your

writing hard to read or that make you seem

ﬂ ippant.

6. Don't write a very long topic in the subject line

of an e-mail.

7. Don't write a thank-you note on a card with

a preprinted "Thank you!" or "Merci" (it's not

considered good manners).

8. Don't let the passage of time stop you from

writing to express congratulations, gratitude,

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Appendix E

168

condolences, or whatever other sentiment your

instincts say you ought to express.

9. Don't write a letter in anger or frustration.

Step back, take some time, and detach yourself

from the situation. Come back to writing when

you have had time to reﬂ ect on the matter and

can express yourself calmly.

10. Don't put anything in writing that you would

be ashamed to see reported on the front page

of the Wall Street Journal.

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169

Appendix F

A Primer of

Good Usage

abstruse.See obtuse.

accede; exceed. Accede = to agree or yield <We acceded

to your request>. Exceed = to surpass, to be greater than

<Your needs exceeded our capacity for production>.

access; excess. Both are traditionally nouns. Access =

the act or opportunity of approaching or entering. Ex-

cess = an amount beyond what is required. Of course,

access is also common today as a verb meaning "to gain

entry to; to penetrate" <I

accessed the storage unit>.

accord; accordance.Accord = agreement <The partners

are in accord about expanding plant capacity>. Accor-

dance = conformance <The materials weren't in accor-

dance with our specs>.

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Appendix F

170

administer; administrate.The ﬁ rst is standard. Avoid

*administrate, a back-formation from administration.

admission; admittance.Admission = permission or au-

thority to enter <The price of admission is steep>. Admit-

tance = physical entry <No admittance after 6 p.m.>.

adopt; adapt.Adopt = take up as one's own <Adopt this

cause>. Adapt = modify <Adapt your leadership style>.

Note that the nouns are adoption and adaptation.

adverse; averse.Adverse = unfavorable or contrary to

<The expansion plan was postponed in face of adverse

market conditions>. Averse = reluctant or unwilling;

having distaste of, fear of, or hostility toward <The com-

pany is risk-averse>.

advise; advice.Advise is the verb <Our CFO advised

against the merger>. Advice is the noun <We took the

consultant's advice>.

aﬀ ect; eﬀ ect.Affect is usually a verb meaning "to have

an inﬂ uence" <The ordinance may affect our sales>. Ef-

fect is usually a noun denoting a result or outcome <It

may be a positive effect>. Effect may also be a verb mean-

ing "to bring about" <The new manager effected several

changes>.

aggravate; irritate.Aggravate = to make worse <This

news aggravates an already-bad situation>. Irritate = to

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A Primer of Good Usage

171

annoy. Using aggravate to mean "irritate" is a common

colloquialism, but it will still annoy some readers.

aide; aid.Aide is an assistant. Aid is assistance.

allusion; illusion.Allusion = an indirect reference, as to

a cultural work, historical event, or other form of shared

knowledge <"Sage of Omaha" is an allusion to Warren

Buffett>. Illusion = a misperception or a mistaken belief

<Their proﬁ tability turned out to be an illusion>.

a lot.Always two words.

already; all ready.Already = previously, by this time

<She was already taking notes>. All ready = completely

prepared <The corporate minutes were all ready for the

secretary's sign-off>.

alternative; alternate.As a noun, alternative = one op-

tion (among one or more others) <We came up with an

alternative design>; alternate = a substitute <The del-

egate's alternate attended>.

altogether; all together.Altogether = entirely or com-

pletely <This trip was altogether useless>. All together =

collectively or in a group <That day we reported to him

all together>.

ambiguous; ambivalent.Ambiguous = inviting more

than one reasonable interpretation <Please clarify the

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Appendix F

172

ambiguous policy>. Ambivalent = having mixed emo-

tions about something <The CFO has ambivalent feel-

ings about the trade-off>.

amend; emend.Amend = to add to a document, esp.

a law or other legal document <Amend the contract>.

Emend = to make corrections or edits to a piece of writ-

ing <Emend the proposal before you circulate it>.

among.See between.

amuse; bemuse.Amuse = to entertain or delight. Be-

muse = to befuddle.

antidote; anecdote.Antidote = anything that coun-

teracts a bad situation <Preparation is the antidote for

nervousness>. Anecdote = an amusing, illustrative story

<She told an anecdote about her ﬁ rst day on the job>.

anxious; eager.Anxious = anticipating with unease or

worry <We grew anxious about the IPO>. Eager = antici-

pating with enthusiasm <Customers were eager for the

retail stores to open>.

appraise; apprise.Appraise = to assess in value <Ap-

praise the property at $1 million>. Apprise = to keep

someone informed <Apprise me of any changes>.

arbiter; arbitrator.Arbiter = a person with ﬁ nal say over

a matter <You're the arbiter of company policy>. Arbi-

trator = a person who conducts an arbitration to settle

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A Primer of Good Usage

173

a dispute <The arbitrator decided the dispute in our

favor>.

as.See like.

assure; ensure; insure.Assure = to try to satisfy someone

of something <He assured me he'd attend>. Ensure = to

make certain that something will happen or that things

will be as expected <We made a schedule to ensure that

we'd meet our deadline>. Insure = to indemnify against

loss or damage <The warehouse was insured for less than

market value>.

attain; obtain.Attain = to achieve or accomplish some-

thing <The regional division attained its quarterly sales

target>. Obtain = to get something <We had no trouble

obtaining raw materials>.

averse.See adverse.

avocation.See vocation.

awhile; a while.Awhile is an adverb meaning "for a short

time" <Let's talk awhile before deciding>. A while is a

noun phrase meaning "a period of time" <Let's talk for a

while before deciding>.

bear; born; borne.Bear = (1) to carry or support <Cor-

porate suitors come bearing gifts> or (2) to give birth

<bear a child>. Borne refers to sense 1 <Airborne par-

ticulates make the product unsafe>, and born to sense 2

<You're a born leader>.

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Appendix F

174

bemuse.See amuse.

beside; besides.Beside = (1) next to or at the side of

<The seat beside the window is taken> or (2) outside of

<That's beside the point> <she was beside herself with

joy>. Besides = in addition to <Besides coffee, we sell tea

and baked goods>.

between; among.Between shows one-to-one connec-

tions <Between payroll and health care, our costs are

up>, even when more than two things are involved <Talks

began between the ﬁ rm and its various suitors>. Among

connotes a looser relationship with three or more <There

was one standout among applicants>.

blatant; ﬂ agrant.Blatant = obvious, overt <That's a bla-

tant lie>. Flagrant = conspicuously rude or abusive <Re-

fusing to shake hands was a ﬂ agrant break of protocol>.

bombastic = pompous, pretentious <Bombastic speeches

stretched out the meeting>. The word has nothing to do

with violence.

born; borne.See bear.

breach; broach.Breach = to break <That's a breach of

contract> or break though <Expansion plans will breach

the market's boundaries>. Broach = to bring up <I hate

to broach the subject>.

can; may.Most properly, can expresses power or abil-

ity <We can ship your order next week>. May expresses

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A Primer of Good Usage

175

permission or possibility <May we ship your order

by UPS?>.

canvas; canvass.Canvas = coarse cloth <We ordered a

canvas awning>. Canvass = a noun meaning "a poll or

survey" or a verb meaning "to conduct a poll or survey"

<Canvass your customers before you brainstorm new

products>.

capital; Capitol.Capitol = the building where the U.S.

Congress or a state legislature meets. In all other senses,

the spelling is capital <capital expenses> <capital letter>

<a capital crime> <the capital city>.

censor; censure.Censor = to inspect and possibly re-

strict the release of matter judged to be objectionable.

Censure = to reprimand someone.

clench; clinch.Clench = to tighten, esp. in anger or de-

termination <clenched ﬁ st>. Clinch = to secure or fasten

<clinch the sale>.

climatic; climactic.Climatic = of the weather, esp. cli-

mate <climatic change>. Climactic = dramatic, riveting,

moving toward a climax <climactic tension>.

clinch.See clench.

closure; cloture.Closure = the act or fact of concluding

or resolving. Cloture = the parliamentary procedure for

ending debate and calling for a vote.

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Appendix F

176

collaborate; corroborate.Collaborate = to cooperate in

an enterprise <We once collaborated in a joint venture>.

Corroborate = to lend support, esp. by conﬁ rming infor-

mation <Two studies corroborate the claims>.

common.See mutual.

compare to; compare with.To compare something to

something else is to liken the two things; to compare

it with something else is to note both similarities and

differences.

compel; impel.Compel = to force, esp. by dint of au-

thority or necessity <I felt compelled to report the er-

ror>. Impel = to drive forward, as by circumstances or

weight of argument <Better opportunities impelled her

to relocate>.

compendious; voluminous.Compendious = concise, con-

densed. Voluminous = large, roomy.

complementary; complimentary.Complementary =

(1) making complete or perfect or (2) matching or

harmonious <a bundle of complementary products>.

Complimentary = (1) free <complimentary tickets> or

(2) ﬂ attering <complimentary reviews>.

comprise; compose.Comprise = to include <The com-

pany comprises three business units>. Compose =

to make up <The company is composed of three business

units>. The phrase *is comprised of is always faulty.

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A Primer of Good Usage

177

compulsive; compulsory.Compulsive = prone to or

caused by uncontrollable urges <compulsive behavior>.

Compulsory = mandatory <compulsory training>.

connote.See denote.

consequent; subsequent.Consequent = following as a

result (consequence) <Our supplier took responsibility

for consequent costs>. Subsequent = following in time

<Subsequent ads included a disclaimer>.

continual; continuous.Continual = recurring, intermit-

tent <continual calls for tech support>. Continuous =

ceaseless, uninterrupted <continuous efforts to meet our

goals>.

convince; persuade.Convince . . . of = to win over, to

prove a point <convince the board of the need to ex-

pand>. Persuade . . . to = convince and cause to take ac-

tion <persuade the board to fund the building program>.

corroborate.See collaborate.

council; counsel.Council = a board <the city council>.

Counsel = (1) adviser <corporate counsel>, (2) advice

<She heeded the counsel of her CFO>, or (3) to advise

<My mentor counseled patience>.

credible; credulous; incredulous; creditable.Credible =

believable, trustworthy <a credible argument>. Credu -

lous = gullible <credulous acceptance>. Incredulous =

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Appendix F

178

unbelieving <an incredulous audience>. Creditable = re-

spectable but not outstanding <a creditable performance>.

damage; damages.Damage = harm <damage caused by

the false rumor>. Damages = judicial compensation for

harm <judgment for $2 million in damages>.

declaim.See disclaim.

deﬁ nite; deﬁ nitive.Deﬁ nite = clear, explicit, unmistak-

able <a deﬁ nite asset to the department>. Deﬁ nitive =

authoritative <the deﬁ nitive source of information>.

delegate.See relegate.

deliberate; deliberative.Deliberate = purposeful <a de-

liberate affront>. Deliberative = of or relating to debate

or discussion <a deliberative decision-making process>.

denote; connote.Denote = to signify; to be the name

of <Mortgagee denotes the lender, not the borrower>.

Connote = to imply; to suggest something beyond the

literal sense of a term <An open workspace connotes

collaboration>.

depreciate; deprecate.Depreciate = to fall in value <The

car will depreciate by 40% when you drive it away>. Dep-

recate = to disapprove of, to plead against <The manager

deprecated the use of company meal allowances for those

working solo>.

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A Primer of Good Usage

179

detract; distract.Detract = take away (some quality)

<His abrupt manner detracted from his effectiveness>.

Distract = divert <An accomplice distracted the cashier>.

device; devise.Device = a tool or apparatus <a handy

device>. Devise = to create or invent <devise a better

system>.

diﬀ erent.Prefer different from over different than.

diﬀ er from; diﬀ er with.To differ from is simply to be dif-

ferent <Gross proﬁ ts differ from net proﬁ ts>; to differ

with is to disagree .

disburse.See disperse.

disclaim; declaim.Disclaim = deny or disavow <dis-

claim any knowledge of the report>. Declaim = to orate

<declaim against corruption>.

discrete; discreet.Discrete = distinct <three discrete

sources of funding>. Discreet = circumspect, tactful <a

discreet phone call>.

disinterested; uninterested.Disinterested = unbiased;

lacking any ﬁ nancial or emotional stake in a dispute

<The arbitrator must be a disinterested third party>. Un-

interested = uncaring <The audience was uninterested>.

disperse; disburse.Disperse = to scatter <disperse an

unruly crowd>. Disburse = to distribute funds <disburse

grants>.

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Appendix F

180

distinct; distinctive.Distinct = clear, well-deﬁ ned <We

set three distinct goals this quarter>. Distinctive = mark-

ing a difference, characteristic <her distinctive manage-

ment style is unlike any we've ever seen>.

distract.See detract.

dominant; dominate.Dominant = supreme <the domi-

nant player>. Dominate = to control <dominate the

market>.

eager.See anxious.

eﬀ ect.See aﬀ ect.

e.g.; i.e.E.g. = for example <big-ticket items (e.g., cars,

refrigerators, and furnaces)>. I.e. = that is <numismatics

(i.e., coin-collecting)>.

elicit; illicit.Elicit = to draw a response <The verbal

gaffe elicited laughter>. Illicit = forbidden, illegal <illicit

behavior>.

eligible; illegible.Eligible = ﬁ t to be chosen; suitable.

Illegible = incapable of being read because of bad hand-

writing, poor printing, etc.

embarrass.So spelled.

emend.See amend.

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A Primer of Good Usage

181

eminent.See imminent.

empathy; sympathy.Empathy = understanding <empa-

thy for a kindred spirit>. Sympathy = compassion <sym-

pathy for the displaced survivors>.

ensure.See assure.

equally.Avoid *equally as. Good usage dictates equally

proﬁ table, not *equally as proﬁ table.

evoke; invoke.Evoke = to draw out <evoke memories>.

Invoke = to call on, esp. for authority or assistance <in-

voke the right to counsel>.

explicit; implicit.Explicit = (1) unambiguous <an ex-

plicit disclaimer> or (2) graphic, lurid <explicit photos>.

Implicit = (1) implied <an implicit warranty> or (2) ab-

solute <implicit trust>.

farther; further.Farther = physically more distant

<Drive three miles farther>. Further = more advanced

<Further study is needed>.

faze; phase.Faze = to agitate <not fazed by the rude

caller>. Phase = a stage of development <a growing

phase>.

fewer.See less.

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Appendix F

182

ﬁ rst, second, third.So written—preferably not *ﬁ rstly,

*secondly, *thirdly.

ﬂ agrant.See blatant.

ﬂ air; ﬂ are.Flair = (1) an innate talent <a ﬂ air for pitch-

ing ideas> or (2) stylishness <write with ﬂ air>. Flare = a

burst, as of light, activity, etc. <an emotional ﬂ are-up>.

ﬂ aunt; ﬂ out.Flaunt = to show off something <ﬂ aunt-

ing new jewelry>. Flout = to openly disobey or disregard

<ﬂ outing the rules>.

ﬂ ounder; founder.Flounder = to struggle or thrash

about <The campaign was ﬂ oundering>. Founder =

(1) to sink <The stock foundered when proﬁ ts fell> or

(2) to fail <The company foundered after the scandal>.

forbear; forebear.Forbear = to refrain from an impulse

<We must forbear any thoughts of retaliating>. Fore-

bear = an ancestor <My grandmother and other fore-

bears were mostly Irish>.

forgo; forego.Forgo = to do without <forgo help>.

Forego = to precede <the foregoing events>.

formally; formerly.Formally = properly <We haven't

been formally introduced>. Formerly = previously <He

was formerly with Hastings>.

founder.See ﬂ ounder.

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A Primer of Good Usage

183

further.See farther.

gibe; jibe.Gibe = a taunt or tease <The manager's talk

was interrupted by good-natured gibes>. Jibe = agree

<That jibes with what I expected>.

harass.So spelled.

horde; hoard.Horde = large group of people <hordes of

customers>. Hoard = a cache, esp. of valuable things <a

hoard of cash>. As a verb, to hoard is to accumulate to an

excessive degree.

i.e.See e.g.

if; whether.A ﬁ ne but useful distinction: If = on the

condition that. So, e.g., Let me know if you need a cata-

log means most rigorously not to call if you don't want a

catalog. Whether = which way you decide about. So Let

me know whether you need a catalog means, again most

rigorously, to please call either way.

illegible.See eligible.

illicit.See elicit.

illusion.See allusion.

imminent; eminent.Imminent = looming and inevitable

<an imminent announcement>. Eminent = prominent

and respected <an eminent authority on the subject>.

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Appendix F

184

impel.See compel.

implicit.See explicit.

imply; infer.Imply = to suggest something without say-

ing it expressly <There's an implied threat>. Infer = to

read into <Can we infer from the announcement that

they will build stores close to ours?>.

in behalf of.See on behalf of.

incredulous.See credible.

infer.See imply.

ingenious; ingenuous.Ingenious = clever, skillful <That

is an ingenious solution>. Ingenuous = frank, innocent,

free of ulterior motive <Security released the child, who

they said was open and ingenuous under questioning>.

in order to.Usually you can shorten this expression to to.

Do so whenever you can with no loss in clarity.

insure.See assure.

invoke.See evoke.

irritate.See aggravate.

it's; its.It's = it is <it's no mistake>. Its = the possessive

form of it <each branch has its responsibilities>.

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A Primer of Good Usage

185

jibe.See gibe.

just deserts(what one deserves) is so spelled—not *just

desserts. Deserve and desert [pronounced /di-ZURT/]

are related words.

lay>laid>laid. To lay is to put down or arrange <I'll lay

it on his desk> <if only

I'd laid it there>.

lend; loan.Lend = to provide, to grant the temporary

use of <Could you lend me that calculator?>. Loan = a

sum of money that has been lent <We're paying back the

loan>. Though traditionally a noun, loan is also accept-

able as a verb when the object is money <We asked the

bank to loan us $50,000>.

less; fewer.Less = a smaller amount <less waste>. Fewer

= a smaller number <fewer losses>.

lie>lay>lain.To lie is to recline <I

lay down earlier this afternoon> <if I'd lain down this af-

ternoon, I'd have more energy now>.

like; as.Like precedes a noun or pronoun <like a rock>.

As precedes a subject and verb <as you said>.

loan.See lend.

loathe; loath.Loathe is the verb meaning "to abhor" <He

loathes broccoli>. Loath is the adjective meaning "reluc-

tant" <He's loath to admit that he loves spinach>.

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Appendix F

186

loose; lose.Loose is an adjective meaning "not tight" or

"not constrained" <loose lips> or a verb meaning "to free"

<loose the dogs of war>. Lose, the verb <lose customers>,

is often misspelled loose.

make do= to get by with <We'll have to make do with

what's available>. The phrase is often mistakenly ren-

dered *make due.

marshal.Both the noun <the ﬁ re marshal> and the verb

<marshal our arguments> are so spelled.

may.See can.

mete out= to allocate. So rendered, not * meet out.

militate. See mitigate.

minuscule= tiny <a minuscule amount>. So spelled, not

*miniscule.

mitigate; militate.Mitigate = to make less harsh <I nor-

mally would have ﬁ led a complaint, but there were miti-

gating circumstances>. Militate = to weight heavily in

one direction <A long history of conﬂ ict militated against

the agreement>.

mutual; common.Mutual = reciprocal <mutual admira-

tion>. Common = shared <common interests>.

nonplussed= frozen by surprise, perplexed <nonplussed

by the shocking news>.

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A Primer of Good Usage

187

number.See quantity.

obtain.See attain.

obtuse; abstruse.Obtuse = dull, dim-witted <I was too

obtuse to catch the allusion>. Abstruse = obscure, ar-

cane <But it turns out that no one caught the abstruse

allusion>.

on behalf of; in behalf of.On behalf of = representing

<accepting the award on behalf of>. In behalf of = in sup-

port of <speaking in behalf of the motion>.

orient; *orientate.Orient = to get one's bearings <spend

the ﬁ rst day getting oriented>. *Orientate is an ostenta-

tious variant to be avoided.

past; passed.Past is the noun <in the past>, adjective

<past efforts>, adverb <walk on past>, and preposition

<past the park>. Passed is the past tense and past parti-

ciple of the verb pass <time passed slowly>.

peak; peek; pique.Peak = a high point, esp. a pointed

one such as a mountaintop or a spike on a chart <reach

the peak>. Peek = a quick, furtive look <take a peek at

this ﬁ le>. Pique = (1) indignation <a ﬁ t of pique> or

(2) to arouse <piqued her interest>.

peddle; pedal.Peddle = to sell <peddle hot dogs>.

Pedal = to operate a foot lever <pedal a bike>.

peek.See peak.

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Appendix F

188

pejorative= having negative implications; tending to

belittle. So spelled, not *perjorative.

pendant; pendent.Pendant = a piece of dangling jew-

elry <a silver pendant>. Pendent = pending, unsettled <a

pendent lawsuit>.

people.See persons.

percent.This word (meaning "by the hundred") was for-

merly spelled as two words. Today it is one.

perquisite; prerequisite.Perquisite = a privilege or ben-

eﬁ t, esp. one attached to a position; usually shortened

to perk <Perks included a company car>. Prerequisite

= a necessary condition <This position has job-training

prerequisites>.

persecute; prosecute.Persecute = treat harshly, esp. as a

group <a persecuted minority>. Prosecute = pursue legal

action <prosecuted for embezzlement >.

personal; personnel.Personal = an adjective meaning

"private, individual." Personnel = a noun meaning "the

whole group of persons employed in a business."

persuade.See convince.

persons; people.In most contexts, the plural persons

sounds stilted. Except for set phrases <missing-persons

report>, reserve person for singular use <Only one per-

son showed up> and use people for the plural.

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A Primer of Good Usage

189

perspicuous; perspicacious.Perspicuous = lucid <a per-

spicuous argument>. Perspicacious = insightful, shrewd

<a perspicacious observer of the market>.

phase.See faze.

pique.See peak.

populace; populous.Populace = the inhabitants of a

place, collectively <the Swiss populace>. Populous =

heavily populated <populous northeastern cities>.

pore; pour.To pore is to read intently <poring over the

ﬁ nancial statements>. To pour is to make (a liquid) ﬂ ow

downward.

practical; practicable.Practical = pertaining to experi-

ence or actual use; adapted to useful action instead of to

contemplation <There must be a practical way of ship-

ping these goods>. Practicable = capable of being done

or used <Scientists have long known that a perpetual-

motion machine is impracticable>.

precede; proceed.Precede = to occur before something

else <An extensive campaign preceded the launch>.

*Preceed is a common misspelling. Proceed = (1) to start

<Proceed with your report> or (2) to continue <From

St. Louis, proceed to Chicago>.

precipitate; precipitous.Precipitate is most commonly a

verb meaning "to cause suddenly or recklessly" <precipi-

tate a riot>. As an adjective, it means "sudden, rash, or

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Appendix F

190

violent" <a precipitate run on the banks>. Precipitous =

steep <a precipitous decline in demand>.

prerequisite.See perquisite.

prescribe; proscribe.Prescribe = to direct a course of ac-

tion <The consultants prescribed a plan>. Proscribe = to

forbid or outlaw <Insider trading is proscribed>.

presumptive; presumptuous.Presumptive = assumed to

be <the presumptive nominee>. Presumptuous = arro-

gant, impudent <making presumptuous demands>.

preventive; *preventative.Preventive = intended to

ward off harm <preventive measures>. *Preventative is

a corrupt form.

principal; principle.Principal = main, ﬁ rst <the princi-

pal reason>. As a noun, it refers to the main person <a

principal at a consulting ﬁ rm> or, in ﬁ nance, the origi-

nal sum of money lent or invested <the principal contin-

ues to earn interest>. Principle = a belief, tenet, or law

<stand on principle> <the principles of economics>.

proceed.See precede.

prophesy; prophecy.Prophesy = to predict <proph-

esy great success>. Prophecy = the prediction <another

doomsday prophecy>.

proposition; proposal.Proposition = something that is

offered for consideration <We reject the proposition that

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A Primer of Good Usage

191

plants should be located only on rivers>. Proposal = a

formal offer <His proposal was silent on the personnel

required to make it work>.

proscribe.See prescribe.

prosecute.See persecute.

prostrate; prostate.Prostrate = lying face down. Pros-

tate = a gland in male mammals.

proved; proven.Proved = the long-preferred past par-

ticiple of prove <last year's projections have proved ac-

curate>. An exception is the set phrase innocent until

proven guilty. Proven is an adjective <Our new line is

already a proven seller>.

purpose. See intention.

quandary= state of confusion <in a quandary about

how to proceed>, not the cause of that confusion.

quantity; number.Quantity = an unspeciﬁ ed mass <The

farm produces large quantities of grain>. Number = a col-

lection of individually countable objects <The number of

units we sold last year exceeded that of any previous year>.

rack.See wrack.

rebut; refute.Rebut = to answer a charge or argument.

Refute = to disprove a charge or argument.

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Appendix F

192

reek; wreak.Reek = (1) to stink <The stagnant water

reeks> or (2) the bad odor <We could smell the reek of an

open sewer>. Wreak = to cause a speciﬁ ed type of harm

<wreak havoc>.

refute. See rebut.

regrettable; regretful.Regrettable = unfortunate <a re-

grettable decision>. Regretful = sorry about <regretful

about not calling>.

rein; reign.Rein = a bridle strap. Figuratively, the means

of control <give free rein> <to rein in>. The homophone

reign (= to rule over) is sometimes mistakenly used in

those and similar idioms.

relegate; delegate.Relegate = to reassign to a lower po-

sition or task <relegated to trafﬁ c control>. Delegate = to

entrust (a person) to act on one's behalf <delegated the

research to Terry>.

reluctant. See reticent.

respectfully; respectively.Respectfully = in a polite

manner <May I respectfully ask you to wait another ﬁ ve

minutes>. Respectively = in regular order <So $500,000

and $600,000 are the benchmarks, respectively, for Ted

and Carol>.

reticent; reluctant.Reticent = taciturn, not open about

one's thought; reluctant to talk <Veterans can be reticent

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A Primer of Good Usage

193

about their experiences>. Avoid using it as a substitute

for being reluctant to act.

role; roll.Role (in the sense "a part in an organization, a

movie, etc.") and roll (in the sense "a list of participants,

actors, etc.") are often confounded.

sanction= (1) a penalty <The commission imposed

sanctions for the incident> or (2) an endorsement <The

board gave its sanction for continued talks>.

species; specie.Species = a type of plant or animal. The

word is both singular and plural. Specie = coined money.

stanch. See staunch.

stationary; stationery.Stationary = unmoving <The

gym has ﬁ ve stationary bikes>. Stationery = writing pa-

per <We received 12 boxes of stationery>.

staunch; stanch.Staunch = loyal and devoted <He's a

staunch supporter>. Stanch = to stop or control the ac-

tual or ﬁ gurative loss of liquid <stanch the red ink>.

strait; straight.Strait = a tight spot <Strait of Magel-

lan> <in dire straits>. Straight often displaces strait in

straitjacket and straitlaced.

strategy; tactics.Strategy = big-picture planning <com-

petitive strategy>. Tactics = actions and techniques that

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Appendix F

194

support your strategy <ﬂ ash mobs and other guerrilla-

marketing tactics>.

subsequent.See consequent.

supersede = to take the place of <It supersedes last

year's employee handbook>. The word is often mis-

spelled *supercede.

sympathy.See empathy.

tactics. See strategy.

than. See then.

that; which.Use that to introduce a clause that's essen-

tial to meaning (a restrictive clause), and don't set it off

with commas. If you write, "The departments that made

their numbers last quarter received budget increases,"

readers will infer that some departments didn't receive

increases. Use which with a clause that isn't essential (a

nonrestrictive clause). If you write, "The departments,

which made their numbers last quarter, received budget

increases," you're saying that all departments received in-

creases. You can leave out a which clause set off by com-

mas and still convey the gist of the sentence.

their. See there.

then; than. Then = at that time; in that case; therefore.

Than expresses comparison <more successful than any

other start-up>.

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A Primer of Good Usage

195

there; their; they're.There refers to direction <over

there> or place <where there is life>; their is the posses-

sive of they <all their worldly belongings>; and they're is

the contraction of they are <they're on the way>.

torpid. See turgid.

toward; towards.Toward dominates in American En-

glish, towards in British English.

try and. Make it try to.

turgid; torpid.Turgid = (1) swollen <the turgid river af-

ter Friday's rain>, or (2) bombastic <a turgid harangue>.

Torpid = dormant or sluggish <Demand is usually torpid

after the holidays>.

uninterested.See disinterested.

unique; unusual. Unique = one of a kind, unmatched <a

unique handmade quilt>. As an absolute term, unique

should not take modiﬁ ers such as very. It is not a syn-

onym of unusual.

use; utilize.Prefer the simple term.

venal; venial.Venal = corrupt, susceptible to bribery

<a venal border guard>. Venial = pardonable <a venial

mistake>.

veracity; voracity.Veracity = truthfulness <Veracity

earns trust>. Voracity = gluttony <His voracity was his

downfall>.

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Appendix F

196

verbiage = wordiness, not the words in a message. Excess

verbiage is redundant. Avoid the misspelling *verbage.

vocation; avocation.Vocation = career <His vocation

is nursing>. Avocation = (1) hobby or (2) second occu-

pation <On weekends he works on his avocation, ﬂ int-

knapping>.

voluminous.See compendious.

voracity. See veracity.

wangle. See wrangle.

whether. See if.

whether; whether or not.In most instances whether can

stand alone: or not adds nothing. But when the sense is

"regardless of whether," the additional words are needed

<We're going whether or not you can make it>.

which. See that.

who's; whose.Who's = who is. Whose = the possessive

form of who or whom.

whosever; whoever's.Whosever is the standard posses-

sive form of whoever. Whoever's is a contraction for who-

ever is.

workers' compensation.This gender-neutral phrase has

replaced workmen's compensation as standard.

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A Primer of Good Usage

197

wrack; rack.Wrack = (1) to destroy <wracked by fraud>

or (2) wreckage <go to wrack and ruin>. Rack = to tor-

ture as on a rack <rack my brains>.

wrangle; wangle.Wrangle = to argue noisily <wrangling

over licensing rights>. Wangle = to obtain by manipula-

tion <wangle an invitation>.

wreak.See reek.

your; you're.Your = possessive form of you. You're =

contraction of you are.

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199

Desk References

Writing well is not just one skill but a combination of

many—and it's something you must constantly work at.

In addition to this guide you might want to keep the fol-

lowing desk references handy.

The Basic Writer's Bookshelf

• The American Heritage Dictionary of the English

Language. 5th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifﬂ in Har-

court, 2011.

• Garner, Bryan A. Garner's Dictionary of Modern

American Usage. 3d ed. New York: Oxford, 2009.

• Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed.

Springﬁ eld, MA: Merriam-Webster, 2008.

• Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases.

George Davidson, ed. Avon, MA: Adams Media,

2011.

• Trimble, John R. Writing with Style. 3d ed. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2010.

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Desk References

200

The Connoisseur's Bookshelf

• Flesch, Rudolf. The Art of Plain Talk. New York:

Harper & Brothers, 1946.

• Flesch, Rudolf. How to Write Plain English: A

Book for Lawyers and Consumers. New York:

Harper & Row, 1979.

• Fowler, H. W. A Dictionary of Modern English

Usage. 2d ed. Edited by Ernest Gowers. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1965.

• Garner, Bryan A. Legal Writing in Plain English.

2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.

• Gowers, Ernest. The Complete Plain Words. 3d ed.

Edited by Sidney Greenbaum and Janet Whitcut.

Boston: David R. Godine, 1986.

• Graves, Robert, and Alan Hodge. The Reader over

Your Shoulder. 2d ed. London: Cape, 1947.

• Partridge, Eric. Usage and Abusage: A Guide to

Good English. New York: Harper & Brothers,

1942.

• Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of

Style. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1999.

• Tufte, Edward R. Beautiful Evidence. Cheshire,

Conn.: Graphics Press, 2006.

• Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning Information.

Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press, 1990.

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Desk References

201

• Wallace, David Foster. Consider the Lobster. New

York: Little, Brown & Co., 2005.

• Zinsser, William. On Writing Well. New York:

HarperCollins, 30th Ann. ed., 2006.

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H6082.indb 202 H6082.indb 202 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Index

acronyms, 96–97

adverbs, 144–145, 147–148

all caps, 158, 167

Alred, Gerald J., 122

and, starting a sentence with,

83–84, 143–144

apostrophes, improper use of,

155–156, 160–161

appositives, 150–151, 156

Architect phase, 13–14, 16, 21–26,

140

articles, (a, an, the), don't drop, 53

as per, 62, 111, 113

attached please ﬁ nd, 62

audience

connecting with, 9–10

consideration for, 111–116,

123–124

for letters, 4–6

holding readers' attention,

91–97

motivating to act, 116–118

nonspecialists, 44–45

perspective of, 43–44

understanding readers, 7–11

who you're writing for, 8

Babenroth, A. Charles, 121–122

Bartholomew, Wallace E., 121

Beautiful Evidence (Tufte), 37–38,

200

be verbs, 55, 94–95

bizspeak, 57–65

boilerplate, 62

boldface type, 158

brainstorming, 14–15, 20–21

brevity and clarity, xvi–xvii, 44–45,

49–51, 53–56, 106, 110

Brusaw, Charles T., 122

Buffett, Warren, 9, 63–65

bullets, as attention-getting de-

vice, 157–158

but, starting a sentence with,

83–84, 143–144

buzzwords, 57–61

Cannon, Kelly, 122

Carpenter phase, 13–14, 16, 23–25,

27–29, 140

Chicago Manual of Style, The ,

15, 154

chronology, 67–70

Churchill, Winston, 91

clarity, 43–48, 53

clichés, 58–61

closing text, 32

Cody, Sherwin, 121

collegiality, 100–101

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Index

204

colons, 157, 159

commas, 148, 150–151, 154–155,

159–160

conclusions, leading readers to, 45

concrete writing, 47

conjunctions

correlative, 147, 151

starting sentences with, 83–84,

143–144

connecting with large audiences,

9–10

continuity and transitions, 71–75,

143–144

contractions, 93

courtesy, 123–124

credibility, 47, 50, 77–78, 80–81

dates, 160, 166

deﬁ nitions, 44–45

delivering bad news, 118–120

dialect, 81–82

diplomacy, 123–124

double negatives, 81–82

drafts

e-mail, 107–110

feedback, 85–87

ﬁ rst, 16, 27–29, 32–35, 55

revising, 31–35

writing rapidly, 27–29

Drucker, Peter, 28

dumbing it down, 64–65

editing, 16–17, 28, 31–35

efﬁ ciency, 14–17

either, 79, 81, 146–147

Elements of Style, The (Strunk and

White), 160, 200

e-mails

BCC, 167

check before sending, 166

compared to letters, 46

general guidelines for, 105–110

storytelling, 67–70

subject line, 106, 167

em-dashes. See long dashes.

emphasis, adding, 37–39, 157–

160

empty words, 9–10

enclosed please ﬁ nd, 111, 113,

121–122

Envisioning Information (Tufte),

37–38, 200

etiquette, business writing,

165–168

feedback from colleagues, 85–87

Flesch Reading Ease (FRE) scale,

63–64

Flesch, Rudolf, 64, 92, 200

Flowers, Betty Sue, 13

focus

ﬁ nding it, 19–25

"you" focus, 92–93, 108, 112,

115–116

fonts, 158, 167

forms of address, 165

Frailey, L.E., 122

FRE scale, 64

fund-raising, 118–119

genderless pronouns, 80–81

getting to the point, 7–8

good and well, 144–145, 163

grammar

generally, 77–84

mistakes creating bad impres-

sions, 163–164

passive voice, 94–95, 115–116

phrasal adjectives, 153–154

rules to know, 77–84, 143–151

granting a beneﬁ t or request, 122

graphics, 37–39

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Index

205

Harvard Law Review, 64

however, 83–84, 144, 148

Hurlbut, Floyd, 121

hyperformality compared to

polished plain speech, 61,

99–100

hyphens, 153–54, 158–159

impressions, bad, 163–164

"index expurgatorius," 57–61

inspiration, 28

-ion words, 55

issues, stating plainly, 3, 49–50,

126–27, 129

italic type, for emphasis, 156, 158

Judge phase, 13–14, 16–17, 28,

141

letters

as a tool for sharpening writing

skills, 46

chronology in, 67–70

form and purpose, 3–6

general guidelines for, 111–124

replying to, 167

salutations, 159, 165

signature, 165–166

when to write and when not to

write, 167–168

logic, 16, 19–20

long dashes, uses for, 159–160

MACJ, 13–14, 28

Madman phase, 13–16, 20–21, 139

Madman–Architect–Carpenter–

Judge, 13–14

main points, 19–25

marketing reports, 129–130

memos, 8, 20–25, 32–35, 125–130

middle, 32

mistakes, admitting, 124

motivating readers, 116–118

neither, 79–81, 146–147, 151

nonstandard language, 82–84

notes, making, 15

nouns

disagreement with pronouns,

80–81

plural, 155–156

of, 54–55

Oliu, Walter E., 122

opening text, 32, 49–50, 71–74

opinions, unsupported, 45, 47

organizing

chronology, 67–70

main points/issues and logic,

19–25

outlining, 16, 50

sets of three, 19–25

subheads, 74

otherwise, 148

outlining, 16, 50

padding, recognizing and elimi-

nating, 53–56

paragraph openers, 71–72

passive voice, 94–95, 115–116

performance appraisals, 133–138

persuasiveness, xviii–xix, 47, 112

phrasal adjectives, hyphenating,

153–154

phrases

canned, 62, 111, 113, 121–122

creating bad impressions,

163–164

overused, 58–61

for performance reviews,

133–137

plagiarism, 15

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Index

206

plain-spoken language, impor-

tance of, 57–65

planning your writing project,

13–16, 19–25

polishing your writing, 14, 16–17,

61, 86

possessives, 160–161

predicates, compound, 154–155

preﬁ xes, hyphenating, 158–159

prepositions, 54, 79, 144, 145,

146–147

prior to, 53

process of writing, 13–17, 19–25,

27–29

procrastination, 28–29

pronouns

errors in using, 77–78, 80–81

personal, 92–93

relative, 149–150

punctuation, basic rules of, 148,

150, 153–161

purpose for writing, 3–6

quotation marks, for emphasis,

158

readers. See also audience

nonspecialist, 9, 44–45

perspective, 43–44, 51, 68–69,

119

three types for memos, 127

time constraints, 7–8

understanding, 7–10

Reader's Digest, 64

reason for writing. See purpose for

writing

recommendations, 129–130

rejection, 118–119

relative pronouns, 149–150

reports, tips on writing, 125–131

reprimand by e-mail, 109–110

requests for proposal, 8

research, 14–16, 128–129

reviews, employee. See perfor-

mance appraisals

revising

general guidelines for, 31–35

continuity and transitions,

71–75

salutations, punctuation follow-

ing, 159

sarcasm, 101

semicolons, 148, 154–155, 159

sentences

compound subjects, 79–80,

145–146

conjunctions at beginning of,

83–84, 143–144

length of, 44–45, 63–65, 95–96

noun–pronoun disagreement,

80–81

prepositions at end of, 144

pronouns, 77–78, 80–81, 92–93

starters, 83–84, 143–144

structure, 95–96

subject–verb disagreement,

78–80, 81, 145–147

"show, don't tell," 45, 47

signature, 107, 165–166

simplicity and clarity in language,

43–48, 53–55, 57–65, 91, 94

sources, 15

speed writing, 27

split inﬁ nitives, 149

standard English, 82–83

starting to write, 13–17, 19–25

storytelling and chronology, 67–70

Strunk, William, Jr., 160–161, 200

style, how to acquire good,

xviii–xix

subheads, 74

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Index

207

subject lines, 106, 125–126, 167

subject–verb agreement, 78–80,

81, 145–147

summarizing, 49–51, 74, 126–128

thank you in advance, 167

thank-you notes, 166, 167

that, 53, 149–150, 194

there, 78–79, 195

their, 80–81, 195

therefore, 73, 74, 148

third person, 92–93, 115–116

Time (magazine), 64

time management, 27–29, 31

titles, 125–126

tone

collegial, 100–101

combative, 123

courteous and direct, 123–124

in e-mails, 107–110

friendly, 4, 8

hyperformality, 99–100

purpose and content, 4–6, 8

relaxed, 99–100

sarcasm, 101

stern, 5–6

urgent, 4–5

transitions and continuity, 71–75

Tufte, Edward, 37–38, 200

underlining, 158

U.S. Securities and Exchange

Commission's Plain English

Handbook, 9

usage

bad examples of, 163–164

good, 169–197

vagueness, 43–47, 49–50

verbs

buried, 55

irregular, 83

past-tense, 94

separating the grammatical

subject from, 156–157

split inﬁ nitives, 149

strong, 55

verb phrases, 148–149

visual aids, 37–39, 140

vocabulary, 82

Washington, George, 91

we, 78, 92, 100, 115–116

well, 144–145, 163

which, 149–151, 194

White, E. B., 160–161, 200

White, Richard Grant, 121

white space in document design,

166

who, 149–51, 161, 196

"who, what, when, where, and

why," 38, 50

wordiness, controlling, 53–56

wording, problems with, 77–84

words, wasting of, 53–56

writer's block, 16, 25, 28

writing

anxiety about, 13–15

beneﬁ ts of good writing, xv–xx

etiquette in, 165–168

four stages checklist for,

139–141

how to begin, 13–17, 19–25

muddy, 43

process of, 13–17, 19–25, 27–29

purpose of, 3–6

rapidly, 27–29

style, 91–97, 99–100

timing, 27

"you" focus, 92–93, 108, 112,

115–116

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H6082.indb 208 H6082.indb 208 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Acknowledgments

My profound gratitude goes to Lisa Burrell of HBR,

who suggested and edited the book through several re-

visions; to the LawProse employees Heather C. Haines,

Becky R. McDaniel, Tiger Jackson, Jeff Newman, David

Zheng, and Ryden McComas Anderson—all of whom

helped in developing and reﬁ ning the text; my Twitter

followers (I'm @bryanagarner) who suggested examples

of bizspeak to be avoided; my mother-in-law Sandra

W. Cheng, her brother Daniel Wu, and my sister-in-law

Linda Garner, all of whom suggested lines of inquiry

from their many years in business; and most of all my

wife, Karolyne H.C. Garner, who cheered and goaded

and inspired me in the months when this book was being

written—as she has before and since.

The book is dedicated to J.P. Allen, the ﬁ lmmaker,

who has been my close friend from childhood (I was 5, he

was 3): We developed our interest in language and writ-

ing as teenagers, while also reading intensively about en-

trepreneurship and business management—never wor-

rying that we might be considered nerds or eggheads. We

H6082.indb 209 H6082.indb 209 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

Acknowledgments

210

always thought learning was cool, and ignorance uncool.

Nothing has changed.

B.A.G.

August 2012

H6082.indb 210 H6082.indb 210 11/6/12 1:21 PM 11/6/12 1:21 PM

About the Author

Bryan A. Garner is a noted lexicographer, grammarian,

lawyer, and business owner. Since founding LawProse

Inc. in 1991, he has trained more than 150,000 lawyers

in the techniques of written persuasion and effective con-

tract drafting. His clients include the legal departments

of dozens of Fortune 500 companies.

Garner is the author of Garner's Modern American Us-

age, The Elements of Legal Style, and The Winning Brief,

and the editor in chief of all in-print editions of Black's

Law Dictionary. He has coauthored two best-selling

books about judicial decision-making with Justice Anto-

nin Scalia.

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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